Abnormal psychology

Humors Hippocrates (460–377 BCE) hypothesized that the body and mind become unwell when the so-called humors, vital fluids in the body, become unbalanced. The four temperaments theory posits four such humors: black bile, yellow bile, phlegm, and blood. Each humor was associated with a particular temperament: too much phlegm causes a person to be fatigued, too much black bile causes melancholia, yellow bile causes a quick temper, and too much blood causes optimism, cheerfulness, and confidence. Asylums The act of placing individuals with mental illness in a separate facility known as an asylum dates to 1547, when King Henry VIII of England established the St. Mary of Bethlehem asylum in London. This hospital, nicknamed Bedlam, was famous for its deplorable conditions. Asylums remained popular throughout the Middle Ages and the Renaissance era. These early asylums often had miserable conditions. Patients were seen as a "burden" to society, locked away and treated almost like beasts to be dealt with, rather than patients needing treatment. However, many of the patients received helpful medical treatment. There was scientific curiosity into abnormal behavior, although it was rarely investigated in the early asylums. Inmates in these early asylums were often put on display for profit, as they were viewed as less than human. The early asylums were basically modifications of the existing criminal institutions. In the late 18th century, the idea of humane treatment for patients gained favor due to the work of Philippe Pinel in France. He pushed for the idea that the patients should be treated with kindness, and not the cruelty inflicted on them, as if they were animals or criminals. His experimental ideas, such as removing the chains from the patients, were met with reluctance. The experiments in kindness proved a great success, helping reform how mental institutions would be run. Through this movement, millions of dollars were raised to build new institutions to house the mentally ill. Mental hospitals grew substantially in number during the 20th century as care for the mentally ill increased. By 1939, there were over 400,000 patients in state mental hospitals in the US. Hospital stays were normally quite long for the patients, with some individuals being treated for many years. These hospitals, while better than the asylums of the past, still lacked the means to provide effective treatment for patients. Even though the reform movement had occurred, patients were often still met with cruel and inhumane treatment. Things began to change in 1946, when Mary Jane Ward published the influential novel The Snake Pit, which was adapted into a popular movie of the same name. The book called attention to the conditions that people with a mental health condition faced, and helped to spark concern in the general public to create more humane mental health care in these overcrowded hospitals. However, the practice is sometimes criticised for a perceived rise in homelessness amongst people who were previously institutionalized, or are presumed to have been in the institution era. ==Explaining abnormal behaviour==

People have tried to explain and control abnormal behavior for thousands of years. Historically, there have been three main approaches to abnormal behavior: the supernatural, biological, and psychological traditions. Although it has been difficult to define abnormal psychology, one definition includes characteristics such as statistical infrequency. A more formalized response to spiritual beliefs about abnormality is the practice of exorcism. Performed by religious authorities, exorcism is thought of as another way to release evil spirits who cause pathological behavior within the person. In some instances, individuals exhibiting unusual thoughts or behaviors have been exiled from society, or worse. Perceived witchcraft, for example, has been punished by death. Two Catholic Inquisitors wrote the Malleus Maleficarum (Latin for "The Hammer Against Witches"), which many Inquisitors and witch-hunters used. It contained an early taxonomy of perceived deviant behavior and proposed guidelines for prosecuting deviant individuals. Biological explanations In the biological tradition, psychological disorders are attributed to biological causes. In the psychological tradition, disorders are attributed to faulty psychological development, and to social context. The Greek physician Hippocrates, considered the father of Western medicine, played a major role in the biological tradition. Hippocrates and his associates wrote the Hippocratic Corpus between 450 and 350 BC, in which they suggested that abnormal behaviors can be treated like any other disease. Hippocrates viewed the brain as the seat of consciousness, emotion, intelligence, and wisdom, and believed that disorders involving these functions would logically be located there. Psychological explanations According to Sigmund Freud's structural model, the id, ego, and superego are three theoretical constructs that define the way an individual interacts with the external world, as well as responding to internal forces The Id represents the instinctual drives of an individual that remain unconscious. The superego represents a person's conscience and their internalization of societal norms and morality. Finally, the ego serves to realistically integrate the id's drives with the superego's prohibitions. Lack of development in the superego, or an incoherently developed Superego within an individual, will result in thoughts and actions that are irrational and abnormal, contrary to the norms and beliefs of society. Rational emotive behavior therapy helps to drive irrational and maladaptive beliefs out of one's mind. Multiple causality The number of different theoretical perspectives in the field of psychological abnormality has made it difficult to explain psychopathology properly. The attempt to explain all mental disorders with the same theory leads to reductionism (explaining a disorder or other complex phenomena using only a single idea or perspective). Most mental disorders are composed of several factors, which is why one must take into account several theoretical perspectives when attempting to diagnose or explain a particular behavioral abnormality or mental disorder. Explaining mental disorders with a combination of theoretical perspectives is known as multiple causality. The diathesis–stress model emphasizes the importance of applying multiple causality to psychopathology, by stressing that both precipitating causes and predisposing causes cause disorders. A precipitating cause is an immediate trigger that instigates a person's action or behavior. A predisposing cause is an underlying factor that interacts with the immediate factors to result in a disorder. Both causes play a key role in the development of a psychological disorder. Recent concepts of abnormality • Statistical abnormality – when a certain behavior/characteristic is relevant to a low percentage of the population. However, this does not necessarily mean that such individuals have a mental illness (for example, statistical abnormalities such as extreme wealth/attractiveness) • Psychometric abnormality – Psychometric abnormality implicates abnormality as a deviation from a statistically determined norm, such as the population average IQ of 100. In this case, an IQ score below about 70–75 may be used to define someone as having a learning disability and may suggest they will have some difficulties coping with life. However, the problems associated with a low IQ differ widely across individuals depending on their life circumstances. So, even when an individual is defined as psycho-metrically 'abnormal', this tells us little about their actual condition or problems. Furthermore, if one takes the other end of the IQ spectrum, a deviation of 30 points above the mean is generally not considered to be abnormal or to indicate the presence of mental health problems. • Deviant behavior – this is not always a sign of mental illness, as mental illness can occur without deviant behavior, and such behavior may occur in the absence of mental illness. • Combinations – including distress, dysfunction, distorted psychological processes, inappropriate responses in given situations, and causing/risking harm to oneself. Examples There is a wide range of mental disorders that are considered to be forms of Abnormal Psychology. These include, but are not limited to: Schizophrenia Schizophrenia can be described as a disorder that causes extreme loss of touch with reality. The Psychotic nature of schizophrenia manifests itself through delusions, as well as auditory and visual hallucinations. Schizophrenia is known to have a genetic etiology, as well as other biological components, such as brain disruptions in the prenatal development period. Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is characterized by high amounts of inattention and hyperactive impulsiveness. Inattentive symptoms include not listening, careless errors, disorganization, losing personal belongings, becoming easily distracted, and forgetfulness. Symptoms of hyperactive impulsiveness include fidgeting, talking excessively, and interrupting others. Additional traits may include superficial charm, sexual promiscuity, and pathological lying. DID has two main etiologies, which are the post-traumatic and socio-cognitive models. SAD is also considered to be one of the more disabling mental disorders. Symptoms of this disorder include fear in most, if not all, social situations. Specific phobia Individuals with specific phobias have an extreme fear and avoidance of various objects or situations. Specifically, fears become phobias when there is excessive and unreasonable fear that is disproportionate to the culture that the individual is in. PTSD symptoms can arise due to various experiences that involve actual or threatened violence, injury, or death. Firsthand experience, witnessing, or learning about traumatic experiences can lead to the development of PTSD. ==Approaches==

• Somatogenic – abnormality is seen as a result of biological disorders in the brain. This approach has led to the development of radical biological treatments, e.g., lobotomy. • Psychogenic – psychological problems cause abnormality. Psychoanalytic (Freud), Cathartic, Hypnotic and Humanistic Psychology (Carl Rogers, Abraham Maslow) treatments were all derived from this paradigm. This approach has, as well, led to some esoteric treatments: Franz Mesmer used to place his patients in a darkened room with music playing, then enter it wearing a flamboyant outfit and poke the "infected" body areas with a stick. ==Classification==

DSM-5 The DSM-5 is the manual that contains the most widely discussed and researched information on this topic. Various conditions have been included in this manual and continue to be added to the DSM-5. The causes of many of these diseases stem from genetic, biological, sociocultural, systemic, and biopsychosocial factors. Various counseling theories support and help explain the findings related to each illness. In North America, this is the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of the American Psychiatric Association. The current version of the book is known as the DSM-5. It lists a set of disorders and provides detailed descriptions of what constitutes a mental disorder. The DSM-5 uses three main sections to organize its contents. These sections include I, II, and III. Section I includes the introduction, use, and basics of the DSM-5. Section II includes diagnostic criteria and codes. Section III includes emerging measures and models. Section I (DSM-5 basics) Section I of the DSM-5 briefly prefaces purpose, content, structure, and use. WHO maintains free access to the ICD-10 Online. Below are the main categories of disorders: • F00–F09 Organic, including symptomatic, mental disorders ICD-11 The ICD-11 is the most recent version of the International Classification of Diseases. The Mental, behavioral, or Neurodevelopmental disorders section highlights forms of abnormal psychology. Mental, behavioral, or neurodevelopmental disorders • 6A00–6A0Z Neurodevelopmental disorders • 6A20–6A2Z Schizophrenia or other primary psychotic disorders • 6A40–6A4Z Catatonia • 6A60–6A8Z Mood Disorders • 6B00–6B0Z Anxiety or fear related disorders • 6B20–6B2Z Obsessive-compulsive or related disorders • 6B40–6B4Z Disorders specifically associated with stress • 6B60–6B6Z Dissociative disorders • 6B80–6B8Z Feeding or eating disorders • 6C00–6C0Z Elimination Disorders • 6C20–6C2Z Disorders of bodily distress or bodily experience • Disorders due to substance use or addictive behaviors • 6C70–6C7Z Impulse control disorders • 6C90–6C9Z Disruptive behavior or dissocial disorders • 6D10–6E68 personality disorders and related traits • 6D30–6D3Z Paraphilic disorders • 6D50–6D5Z Factitious disorders • 6D70–6E0Z Neurocognitive disorders • 6E20–6E2Z Mental or behavioral disorders associated with pregnancy, childbirth, or the puerperium • 6E40.0–6E40.Z (6E40) Psychological or behavioral factors affecting disorders or diseases classified elsewhere • 6E60–6E6Z secondary mental or behavioral syndromes associated with disorders or diseases classified elsewhere ==Perspectives of abnormal psychology==

Psychologists may use different perspectives to gain a better understanding of abnormal psychology. Some of them may concentrate on a single perspective. But professionals prefer to combine two or three perspectives to obtain meaningful information for better treatments. • Behavioral – the perspective focuses on observable behaviors • Medical – the perspective focuses on biological causes of mental illness • Cognitive – the perspective focuses on how internal thoughts, perceptions, and reasoning contribute to psychological disorders ==Cause==

Genetics • Investigated through family studies, mainly of monozygotic (identical) and dizygotic (fraternal) twins, often in the context of adoption. Monozygotic twins should be more likely than dizygotic twins to have the same disorder because they share 100% of their genetic material, whereas dizygotic twins share only 50%. For many disorders, this is exactly what research shows. But given that monozygotic twins share 100% of their genetic material, it may be expected of them to have the same disorders 100% of the time, but in fact they have the same disorders only about 50% of the time • These studies allow calculation of a heritability coefficient. • Genetic vulnerabilities (Diathesis stress Model) • Constitutional liabilities [physical handicaps and temperament] • Brain dysfunction and neural plasticity • Physical deprivation or disruption [deprivation of basic physiological needs] Socio-cultural factors • Effects of urban/rural dwelling, gender, and minority status on state of mind • Generalizations about cultural practices and beliefs may fail to capture the diversity that exists within and across cultural groups, so we must be extremely careful not to stereotype individuals of any cultural group • Experiences with child physical and or sexual abuse. ==Therapies==

Psychoanalysis (Freud) Psychoanalytic theory is heavily based on the theory of the neurologist Sigmund Freud. These ideas often represented repressed emotions and memories from a patient's childhood in the patient's unconscious. According to psychoanalytic theory, these repressions cause the disturbances people experience in their daily lives, and by finding their source, one should be able to eliminate them. This is accomplished through a variety of methods, including free association, hypnosis, and insight. The goal of these methods is to induce a catharsis, or emotional release, in the patient, which should indicate that the source of the problem has been tapped and can then be treated. Freud's psychosexual stages also played a key role in this form of therapy, as he would often believe that the problems the patient was experiencing were due to them becoming stuck, or "fixated", in a particular stage. Dreams also played a major role in this form of therapy, as Freud viewed dreams as a way to gain insight into the unconscious mind. Patients were often asked to keep dream journals to bring in for discussion during the next therapy session. There are many potential problems associated with this style of therapy, including resistance to the repressed memory or feeling, and negative transference onto the therapist. Psychoanalysis was carried on by many after Freud, including his daughter Anna Freud, and Jacques Lacan. Many others have also elaborated on Freud's original theory and added their own take on defense mechanisms or dream analysis. While psychoanalysis has fallen out of favor to more modern forms of therapy, it is still used by some clinical psychologists to varying degrees. Behavioral therapy (Wolpe) Behavior therapy relies on the principles of behaviorism, such as involving classical and operant conditioning. Behaviorism arose in the early 20th century, from the work of psychologists such as James Watson and B. F. Skinner. Behaviorism states that all behaviors humans do are because of a stimulus and reinforcement. While this reinforcement is normally for good behavior, it can also occur for maladaptive behavior. In this therapeutic view, the patient's maladaptive behavior has been reinforced, which will lead to its repetition. The goal of the therapy is to reinforce less maladaptive behaviors so that, over time, these adaptive behaviors become the patient's primary ones. Humanistic therapy (Rogers) Humanistic therapy aims to achieve self-actualization (Carl Rogers, 1961). In this style of therapy, the therapist will focus on the patient themselves rather than on the patient's problem. The goal of this therapy is, by treating the patient as "human", rather than "client", to get to the source of the problem and to resolve the problem effectively. Humanistic therapy has been on the rise in recent years and is associated with numerous benefits. It is considered one of the core elements needed for therapeutic effectiveness and a significant contributor to the well-being of not only the patient but society as a whole. Some say that all therapeutic approaches today draw on the humanistic approach in some way, and that humanistic therapy is the best way to treat a patient. Humanistic therapy can be used on people of all ages; it is very popular among children in its variant known as "play therapy". CBT is an effective treatment for many patients, even those who do not have diseases and disorders typically thought of as psychiatric ones. For example, patients with the disease multiple sclerosis have found a lot of help using CBT. The treatment often helps the patients cope with the disorder they have and how they can adapt to their new lives without developing new problems, such as depression or negative schemas about themselves. According to RAND, therapies are difficult to provide to all patients in need. A lack of funding and understanding of symptoms provides a major roadblock that is not easily avoided. Individual symptoms and responses to treatment vary, creating a disconnect among patients, society, and caregivers/professionals. Play therapy (Humanistic) Children are often sent to therapy due to outbursts that they have in a school or home setting; the theory is that by treating the child in a setting that is similar to the area where they are having their disruptive behavior, the child will be more likely to learn from the therapy and have an effective outcome. In play therapy, the clinicians will "play" with their client, usually with toys or a tea party. Playing is typical child behavior; therefore, playing with the therapist will come naturally to the child. While playing together, the clinician will ask the patient questions, and in this setting, they seem less intrusive, more therapeutic, and more like a normal conversation. This should help the patient identify their issues and disclose them to the therapist with less difficulty than they may experience in a traditional counseling setting. Play therapy involves a therapist observing a child as the child plays with toys and interacts with their surrounding environment. The therapist plays both an observational and an interactional role in the intervention. This process allows the child to enact their problems through play and speak more comfortably with the therapist. Family systems therapies Family systems therapies are based on the belief that children's problems stem from issues within the family. Family systems therapy aims to improve relationships among multiple people within specific families through therapeutic intervention. For the best effect, it is recommended that the entire family be included in the therapy. The treatments include family management skill development and child–parent attachment development. These interventions help to improve family functioning. These goals are often achieved by creating understanding regarding behaviors, creating opportunities for attachment, and increasing the family's ability to think about their history and relationships. Stigmatization and negative connotations One of the primary criticisms of the term "Abnormal Psychology" is its contribution to the stigmatization of individuals with mental health conditions. The label "abnormal" implies a deviation from a societal norm, which can reinforce negative stereotypes and social exclusion. Critics argue that such language can lead to individuals feeling marginalized, perpetuating a sense of "otherness" and reinforcing the stigma associated with mental health issues. == See also ==