Prehistory According to several archaeological findings, the first evidence of human habitation in Aceh is from a site near the
Tamiang River, where shell
middens are present.
Stone tools and
faunal remains were also found on the site. Archeologists believe the site was first occupied around 10,000 BCE.
Pre-Islamic Aceh from Aceh. inscription stored in the Aceh Museum The history of Aceh stretches back to the
Lambri Kingdom. Several documented references indicate that Hindu-Buddhist culture existed in the area before its
Islamization. The inscription at
Tanjore of
Rajendra I documents the conquest of a land called "llämuridesam", located at the northern tip of Sumatra. The
Nagarakretagama documents the possessions of the Imperial
Majapahit and states that it controls Barat (identified as the western coast of Aceh).
Chinese records indicate that Aceh was under the control of the
Sriwijaya. Though many temples were left abandoned or converted into mosques, such as the
Indrapuri Old Mosque, some evidence remains, such as the head of a stone sculpture of
Avalokiteshvara Boddhisattva that was discovered in Aceh. Images of
Amitabha Buddhas adorn his crown, facing forward and on each side.
Srivijayan art estimated 9th-century CE collection of
National Museum of Indonesia, Jakarta. One of the few remaining structures is the Indra Patra fort, which houses several Hindu shrines. Historic names such as Indrapurba, Indrapurwa, Indrapatra, and Indrapuri, which refer to the god
Indra, also indicate that Hinduism had a lasting and significant presence in this land.
Beginnings of Islam in Southeast Asia , the first Islamic kingdom in
Southeast Asia Evidence concerning the arrival and subsequent establishment of Islam in
Southeast Asia is thin and inconclusive. The historian
Anthony Reid has argued that the region of the
Cham people on the south-central coast of Vietnam was one of the earliest Islamic centers in Southeast Asia. Furthermore, as the Cham people fled the Vietnamese, one of the earliest locations where they established a relationship was with Aceh. It is thought that one of the earliest centers of
Islam was in the Aceh region. When
Venetian traveler
Marco Polo passed by Sumatra on his way home from China in 1292, he found that
Peureulak was a Muslim town while nearby "Basma(n)" and "Samara" were not. "Basma(n)" and "Samara" are often said to be
Pasai and Samudra, but evidence is inconclusive. The gravestone of Sultan
Malikussaleh, the first Muslim ruler of Samudra, has been found and is dated
AH 696 (1297 CE). This is the earliest clear evidence of a Muslim dynasty in the Indonesia-Malay area, and more 13th-century gravestones show that this region continued under Muslim rule.
Ibn Batutah, a
Moroccan traveller, passing through on his way to China in 1345 and 1346, found that the ruler of Samudra was a follower of the
Shafi'i school of Islam. After Islam first appeared in Aceh, it spread into the coastal regions by the 15th century. Aceh soon became a cultural and scholastic Islamic center throughout Southeast Asia. It also became wealthy because it was a center of extensive trade. The Portuguese
apothecary Tome Pires reported in his early 16th-century book
Suma Oriental that most of the kings of Sumatra, from Aceh to
Palembang, were Muslim. At Pasai, in what is now the
North Aceh Regency, there was a thriving international port. Pires attributed the establishment of Islam in Pasai to the 'cunning' of the Muslim merchants. The ruler of Pasai, however, had not been able to convert the people of the interior.
Sultanate of Aceh The Sultanate of Aceh was established by Sultan
Ali Mughayat Syah in 1511. In 1584–88, the bishop of
Malacca, D. João Ribeiro Gaio, based on information provided by a former captive called Diogo Gil, wrote the "Roteiro das Cousas do Achem" (Lisboa 1997)—a description of the sultanate. Later, during its
golden era, in the 17th century, its
territory and political influence expanded as far as
Satun in southern
Thailand,
Johor in
Malay Peninsula, and Siak in what is today the province of
Riau. As was the case with most non-Javan pre-colonial states,
Acehnese power expanded outward by sea rather than inland. As it expanded down the Sumatran coast, its main competitors were
Johor and
Portuguese Malacca on the other side of the
Straits of Malacca. It was this seaborne trade focus that led Aceh to rely on rice imports from north
Java rather than develop
self-sufficiency in rice production. After the Portuguese occupation of
Malacca in 1511, many Islamic traders passing the
Malacca Straits shifted their trade to
Banda Aceh and increased the
Acehnese rulers' wealth. During the reign of
Sultan Iskandar Muda in the 17th century, Aceh's influence extended to most of
Sumatra and the
Malay Peninsula. Aceh allied itself with the
Ottoman Empire and the
Dutch East India Company in their struggle against the
Portuguese and the
Johor Sultanate. Acehnese military power waned gradually thereafter, and Aceh ceded its territory of
Pariaman in
Sumatra to the
Dutch in the 18th century. By the early 19th century, however, Aceh had become an increasingly influential power due to its strategic location for controlling regional trade. In the 1820s, it was the producer of over half the world's supply of
black pepper. The pepper trade produced new wealth for the sultanate and for the rulers of many smaller nearby ports that had been under Aceh's control, but were now able to assert more independence. These changes initially threatened Aceh's integrity, but a new Sultan,
Tuanku Ibrahim, who ruled from 1838 to 1870, reasserted control over nearby ports. Under the
Anglo-Dutch Treaty of 1824, the
British ceded their colonial possessions on Sumatra to the Dutch. In the treaty, the British described Aceh as one of their possessions, although they had no actual control over the sultanate. Initially, under the agreement, the Dutch agreed to respect Aceh's independence. In 1871, however, the British dropped previous opposition to a Dutch invasion of Aceh, possibly to prevent
France or the United States from gaining a foothold in the region. Although neither the Dutch nor the British knew the specifics, there had been rumors since the 1850s that Aceh had been in communication with the rulers of France and of the Ottoman Empire. The Dutch colonial government declared war on Aceh on 26 March 1873. Aceh sought American help, but Washington rejected the request. During the course of the war, the Dutch set up the
Gouvernment of Atjeh and Dependencies under a governor, although it did not establish wider control of its territory until after 1908. The Aceh army was rapidly modernized, and Aceh soldiers killed Köhler. Köhler made some grave tactical errors, and the reputation of the Dutch was severely harmed. In recent years, in line with expanding international attention to human rights issues and atrocities in war zones, there has been increasing discussion about some of the recorded acts of cruelty and slaughter committed by Dutch troops during the period of warfare in Aceh. Hasan Mustafa (1852–1930) was a chief
penghulu (judge) for the colonial government, stationed in Aceh. He had to balance traditional Muslim justice with Dutch law. To stop the Aceh rebellion, Hasan Mustafa issued a fatwa, telling the Muslim population there in 1894, "It is Incumbent upon the Indonesian Muslim to be loyal to the Dutch East Indies Government".
Japanese occupation During World War II, Japanese troops occupied Aceh. The Acehnese
ulama (Islamic clerics) fought against both the Dutch and the Japanese, revolting against the Dutch in February 1942 and against Japan in November 1942. The revolt was led by the All-Aceh Religious Scholars' Association (PUSA). The Japanese suffered 18 dead in the uprising while they slaughtered up to 100 or over 120 Acehnese. The revolt happened in Bayu and was centered around Tjot Plieng village's religious school. During the revolt, the Japanese troops armed with mortars and machine guns were charged by sword wielding Acehnese under Teungku Abduldjalil (Tengku Abdul Djalil) in Buloh Gampong Teungah and Tjot Plieng on 10 and 13 November. In May 1945 the Acehnese rebelled again. The religious ulama party gained ascendancy to replace district warlords () party that formerly collaborated with the Dutch. Concrete bunkers still line the northernmost beaches.
Indonesian independence , 3rd governor of Aceh and the regional leader of Darul Islam in Aceh After World War II, civil war erupted in 1945 between the district warlords party, which supported the return of a Dutch government, and the
Persatuan Ulama Seluruh Aceh (PUSA) party, which supported the newly proclaimed state of Indonesia. The ulama won, and the area remained free during the
Indonesian War of Independence. The Dutch military itself never attempted to invade Aceh. The civil war raised the religious
ulama party leader,
Daud Bereu'eh, to the position of military governor of Aceh.
Acehnese rebellion The Acehnese revolted soon after their inclusion into an independent Indonesia, a situation created by a complex mix of what the Acehnese regarded as transgressions against and betrayals of their rights.
Sukarno, the first president of Indonesia, had reneged on his promise made on 16 June 1948 that Aceh would be allowed to rule itself in accordance with
Islamic Law. Aceh was politically dismantled and incorporated into the province of
North Sumatra in 1950. This resulted in the Acehnese Rebellion of 1953–59, which was led by
Daud Beureu'eh, who on 20 September 1953 declared a free, independent Aceh under the leadership of
Sekarmadji Maridjan Kartosoewirjo. In 1959, the Indonesian government attempted to placate the Acehnese by offering broad freedom in matters of religion, education, and culture.
Free Aceh Movement with GAM commander Abdullah Syafei'i, 1999 During the 1970s, under an agreement with the Indonesian central government, American oil and gas companies began the exploitation of Aceh's natural resources. Alleged unequal distribution of profits between the central government and the native people of Aceh induced Dr.
Hasan Muhammad di Tiro, former ambassador of Darul Islam,
Tsunami disaster was created and designed to raise awareness of the disaster The western coastal areas of Aceh, including the cities of
Banda Aceh,
Calang, and
Meulaboh, were among the areas hardest hit by the
tsunami resulting from the magnitude 9.2
Indian Ocean earthquake on 26 December 2004. While estimates vary, over 170,000 people were killed by the tsunami in Aceh, and about 500,000 were left homeless. The tragedy of the tsunami was further compounded several months later, when the
2005 M8.6 Nias–Simeulue earthquake struck the seabed between the islands of
Simeulue Island in Aceh and
Nias in North Sumatra. This second quake killed a further 1346 people on Nias and Simeulue, displaced tens of thousands more, and caused the tsunami response to be expanded to include Nias. The
World Health Organisation estimates a 100% increase in prevalence of mild and moderate
mental disorders in Aceh's general population after the tsunami. The Pacific Tsunami Warning Center, misjudging the intensity of the Sumatra earthquake, issued a bulletin stating that no tsunami was expected following a magnitude 8.0 quake, based on historical data. Only when more accurate measurements of quakes of magnitude 9.0 or higher became available did scientists at the warning center realize they were dealing with a basin-wide tsunami across the Indian Ocean. When the tsunami hit, it was enormous, and the death toll in Aceh exceeded 100,000. There was no
tsunami warning system in 2004. Tsunami warning systems have improved since the immense death toll drew international attention, but in rural areas where many lack internet access or cell phones, it remains a challenge to communicate warnings promptly. A warning system was put in place at the request of Aceh residents, but it was disabled in 2007 after technical issues and a false alarm that caused a panic. The population of Aceh before the December 2004 tsunami was 4,271,000 (2004). The population as of 15 September 2005 was 4,031,589, and in January 2014 was 4,731,705. The 2020 census produced a total population of 5,274,871, comprising 2,647,563 males and 2,627,308 females. As of February 2006, more than a year after the tsunami, a large number of people were still living in barrack-style temporary living centers (TLC) or
tents. Reconstruction was visible everywhere, but due to the sheer scale of the disaster and logistic difficulties, progress was slow. A study in 2007 estimated that 83.6% of the population had a psychiatric illness, while 69.8% suffers from severe emotional distress. The ramifications of the tsunami went beyond the immediate impact on the lives and infrastructure of the Acehnese living on the coast. Since the disaster, the Acehnese rebel movement GAM, which had been fighting for independence against the Indonesian authorities for 29 years, has signed a peace deal (15 August 2005). The perception that the tsunami was punishment for insufficient piety in this proudly Muslim province is partly behind the increased emphasis on the importance of religion post-tsunami. This has been most evident in the increased implementation of
Sharia law, including the introduction of the controversial
Wilayatul Hisbah (Syariah police). As homes are being built and people's basic needs are met, the people are also looking to improve the quality of
education, increase tourism, and develop a responsible, sustainable industry. Well-qualified educators are in high demand in Aceh. While parts of the capital
Banda Aceh were unscathed, the areas closest to the water, especially the areas of Kampung Jawa and Meuraxa, were completely destroyed. Most of the rest of the western coast of Aceh was severely damaged. Many towns completely disappeared. Other towns on Aceh's west coast hit by the disaster included
Lhoknga,
Leupung, Lamno,
Patek,
Calang,
Teunom, and the island of
Simeulue. Affected or destroyed towns on the region's north and east coasts were
Pidie Regency,
Samalanga, and
Lhokseumawe. The area was slowly rebuilt after the disaster. The government initially proposed the creation of a two-kilometer
buffer zone along low-lying coastal areas within which permanent construction was not permitted. This proposal was unpopular among some local residents and proved impractical in most situations, especially among
fishing families that depend on living near the sea. The Indonesian government established a special agency for Aceh reconstruction, the
Badan Rehabilitasi dan Rekonstruksi (BRR), headed by
Kuntoro Mangkusubroto, a former Indonesian government minister. This agency had ministry-level authority and incorporated officials, professionals, and community leaders from all backgrounds. Most of the reconstruction work was performed by local people using a mix of traditional methods and partially prefabricated structures, with funding from many international organizations, governments, and individuals, as well as the people themselves. The
Government of Indonesia estimated in their Preliminary Damage and Losses Assessment that damages amounted to US$4.5 billion (before inflation, and US$6.2 billion including inflation). Three years after the tsunami, reconstruction was still ongoing. The
World Bank monitored funding for reconstruction in Aceh and reported that US$7.7 billion had been earmarked for the reconstruction, whilst in June 2007, US$5.8 billion had been allocated to specific reconstruction projects, of which US$3.4 billion had actually been spent (58%). In 2009, the government opened a US$5.6 million
museum to commemorate the tsunami with photographs, stories, and a simulation of the earthquake that triggered the tsunami.
Peace agreement and contemporary history , facilitator in Aceh-Indonesia peace agreement The 2004 tsunami helped trigger a peace agreement between the
GAM and the Indonesian government. The mood in post-
Suharto Indonesia during the liberal-democratic reform period, along with changes in the Indonesian military, helped create an environment more favorable to peace talks. The roles of newly elected president
Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono and vice president
Jusuf Kalla were highly significant. At the same time, the GAM leadership was undergoing changes, and the
Indonesian military had inflicted so much damage on the rebel movement that it had little choice but to negotiate with the central government. The peace talks were first initiated by
Juha Christensen, a Finnish peace activist, and then formally facilitated by a
Finland-based NGO, the
Crisis Management Initiative led by former Finnish president
Martti Ahtisaari. The resulting peace agreement, generally known as the
Helsinki Agreement, was signed on 15 August 2005. Under the agreement, Aceh would receive special autonomy, and government troops would be withdrawn from the province in exchange for GAM's disarmament. As part of the agreement, the
European Union dispatched
Aceh Monitoring Mission. Their mission expired on 15 December 2006, following local elections. Aceh has been granted greater autonomy through an Aceh government law that includes special rights agreed in 2006 as well as the right of Acehnese people to establish local political parties to represent their interests. Human rights advocates protest that previous human rights violations in the province have not been seriously addressed. == Biodiversity ==