African masks usually emulate a human or animal face in an abstract way. The inherent lack of
realism in African masks (and African art in general) is justified by the fact that most African cultures clearly distinguish the essence of a subject from its looks, the former, rather than the latter, being the actual subject of artistic representation. An extreme example is given by
nwantantay masks of the
Bwa people (
Burkina Faso) that represent the flying spirits of the forest; since these spirits are deemed to be invisible, the corresponding masks are shaped after abstract, purely geometrical forms. Stylish elements in a mask's looks are codified by the tradition and may either identify a specific community or convey specific meanings. For example, both the Bwa and the Buna people of Burkina Faso have
hawk masks, with the shape of the beak identifying a mask as either Bwa or Buna. In both cases, the hawk's wings are decorated with geometric patterns that have moral meanings; saw-shaped lines represent the hard path followed by ancestors, while chequered patterns represent the interaction of opposites (male-female, night-day, and so on) Traits representing moral values are found in many cultures. Masks from the
Senufo people of
Ivory Coast, for example, have their eyes half closed, symbolizing a peaceful attitude, self-control, and patience. In
Sierra Leone and elsewhere, small eyes and mouth represent
humility, and a wide, protruding forehead represents wisdom. In Gabon, large chins and mouths represent authority and strength. Animals are common subjects in African masks. Animal masks typically embody the spirit of animals, so that the mask-wearer becomes a medium to speak to animals themselves (e.g. to ask wild beasts to stay away from the village); in many cases, nevertheless, an animal is also (sometimes mainly) a symbol of specific virtues. Common animal subjects include the
buffalo (usually representing strength, as in the Baoulé culture),
crocodile, hawk,
hyena,
warthog and
antelope. Antelopes have a fundamental role in many cultures of the Mali area (for example in Dogon and
Bambara culture) as representatives of
agriculture. Dogon antelope masks are highly abstract, with a general rectangular shape and many horns (a representation of abundant harvest. Bambara antelope masks (called
chiwara) have long horns representing the thriving growth of
millet,
legs (representing roots), long ears (representing the songs sung by the working women at harvest time), and a saw-shaped line that represents the path followed by the Sun between
solstices. Another well-known example is that of
kifwebe masks of the
Songye people (
Congo Basin), that mix the stripes of a
zebra (or
okapi), the teeth of a
crocodile, the eyes of a
chameleon, the mouth of an
aardvark, the crest of a rooster, the feathers of an
owl and more. Feminine masks of the
Baga people have
ornamental scars and breasts. In many cases, wearing masks that represent feminine beauty is strictly reserved for men.
Ancestor masks (masks of the dead) As the
veneration of defunct ancestors is a fundamental element of most African traditional cultures, it is not surprising that the dead is also a common subject for masks. Masks referring to dead ancestors are most often shaped after a
human skull. A well-known example is the
mwana pwo (literally, "young woman") of the
Chokwe people (
Angola), that mixes elements referring to feminine beauty (well-proportioned oval face, small nose and chin) and other referring to death (sunken eye sockets, cracked skin, and tears); it represents a female ancestor who died young, venerated in rites such as
circumcision rites and ceremonies associated to the renewal of life. As veneration of the dead is most often associated with fertility and reproduction, many dead-ancestor masks also have sexual symbols; the
ndeemba mask of the
Yaka people (Angola and
DR Congo), for example, is shaped after a skull complemented with a phallic-shaped nose. A special class of ancestor masks are those related to notable, historical or legendary people. The
mwaash ambooy mask of the
Kuba people (DR Congo), for example, represents the legendary founder of the
Kuba Kingdom, Woot, while the
mgady amwaash mask represents his wife Mweel.
Miniature masks In parts of
West Africa miniature versions of masks have traditionally been used as personal items of belief, acting as spiritual guides and protectors during travels, keeping a spiritual connection to the original full-scale mask. Due to
commodification in the wake of
colonization, the passport masks have been mis-represented as symbols of free passage similar to
passports. ==Materials and structure==