Airbus A380

Background cross-section In mid-1988, Airbus engineers, led by Jean Roeder, began work in secret on the development of an ultra-high-capacity airliner (UHCA), both to complete its own range of products and to break the dominance that Boeing had enjoyed in this market segment since the early 1970s with its Boeing 747. Lockheed was exploring the possibility for a Very Large Subsonic Transport. Roeder was given approval for further evaluations of the UHCA after a formal presentation to the President and CEO in June 1990. The megaproject was announced at the 1990 Farnborough Airshow, with the stated goal of 15% lower operating costs than the Boeing 747-400. In June 1994, Airbus announced its plan to develop its own very large airliner, designated as A3XX. Airbus considered several designs, including an unusual side-by-side combination of two fuselages from its A340, the largest Airbus jet at the time. The A3XX was pitted against the VLCT study and Boeing's own New Large Aircraft successor to the 747. In July 1995, the joint study with Boeing was abandoned, as Boeing's interest had declined due to analysis that such a product was unlikely to cover the projected $15billion development cost. Despite the fact that only two airlines had expressed public interest in purchasing such a plane, Airbus was already pursuing its own large-plane project. Analysts suggested that Boeing would instead pursue stretching its 747 design, and that air travel was already moving away from the hub-and-spoke system that consolidated traffic into large planes, and toward more non-stop routes that could be served by smaller planes. From 1997 to 2000, as the 1997 Asian financial crisis darkened the market outlook, Airbus refined its design, targeting a 15–20% reduction in operating costs over the existing Boeing 747-400. The A3XX design converged on a double-decker layout that provided more passenger volume than a traditional single-deck design. Airbus did so in line with traditional hub-and-spoke theory, as opposed to the point-to-point theory with the Boeing 777, after conducting an extensive market analysis with over 200 focus groups. Although early marketing of the huge cross-section touted the possibility of duty-free shops, restaurant-like dining, gyms, casinos and beauty parlours on board, the realities of airline economics have kept such dreams grounded. On 19 December 2000, the supervisory board of newly restructured Airbus voted to launch a € billion ($10.7 billion) project to build the A3XX, re-designated as A380, with 50 firm orders from six launch customers. The A380 designation was a break from previous Airbus families, which had progressed sequentially from A300 to A340. It was chosen because the number 8 resembles the double-deck cross section, and is a lucky number in many East Asian countries where the aircraft was being marketed.billion when the first aircraft was completed. Total development cost In 2000, the projected development cost was €9.5billion. In 2004, Airbus estimated that €1.5billion (US$2billion) would need to be added, totalling the developmental costs to € billion ($ billion). In 2006, Airbus stopped publishing its reported cost after reaching costs of €10.2billion and then it provisioned another €4.9billion, after the difficulties in electric cabling and two years delay for an estimated total of €18billion. In 2015, Airbus said development costs were €15billion (£11.4billion, $ billion), though analysts believe the figure is likely to be at least €5bn ($ Bn) more for a € Bn ($ Bn) total. In 2016, The A380 development costs were estimated at $25billion for 15 years, $25–30billion, or €25billion ($28billion). To start the programme in 2000, the governments of France, Germany and the UK loaned Airbus €3.5billion and refundable advances reached €5.9billion ($7.3billion). In its 2017 half-year report, Airbus adjusted 2019 deliveries to eight aircraft. In November 2017, its chief executive Tom Enders was confident Airbus would still produce A380s in 2027 with more sales to come, and further develop it to keep it competitive beyond 2030. Airbus was profitable at a rate of 15 per year and is trying to drive breakeven down further but will take losses at eight per year. If it had failed to win the Emirates order, Airbus claimed that it was ready to phase out its production gradually as it fulfilled remaining orders until the early 2020s. In January 2018, Emirates confirmed the order for 36 A380s, but the deal was thrown back into question in October 2018 over a disagreement regarding engine fuel burn. To extend the programme, Airbus offered China a production role in early 2018. While state-owned Chinese airlines could order A380s, it would not help their low yield, as it lowers frequency; they do not need more volume as widebody aircraft are already used on domestic routes and using the A380 on its intended long-haul missions would free only a few airport slots. After achieving efficiencies to sustain production at a lower level, in 2017, Airbus delivered 15 A380s and was "very close" to production breakeven, expecting to make additional savings as production was being further reduced: it planned to deliver 12 in 2018, eight in 2019 and six per year from 2020 with "digestible" losses. Airbus would have needed more than $90million profit from the sale of each aircraft to cover the estimated $25billion development cost of the programme. However, the $445million price tag of each aircraft was not sufficient to even cover the production cost. With orders decreasing, the decision was made to cease production. Enders stated on 14 February 2019, "If you have a product that nobody wants anymore, or you can sell only below production cost, you have to stop it." One reason that the A380 did not achieve commercial viability for Airbus has been attributed to its extremely large capacity being optimised for a hub-and-spoke system, which was projected by Airbus to be thriving when the programme was conceived. However, airlines underwent a fundamental transition to a point-to-point system, which gets customers to their destination in one flight instead of two or three flights. The massive scale of the A380 design was able to achieve a very low cost for passenger seat-distance, but efficiency within the hub-and-spoke paradigm was not able to overcome the efficiency of fewer flights required in the point-to-point system. Specifically, US based carriers had been using a multihub strategy, which justified the need for only a handful of VLAs (very large aircraft with more than 400 seats) such as the A380, and having too few VLAs meant that they could not achieve economy of scale to spread out the enormous fixed cost of the VLA support infrastructure. Consequently, orders for VLAs slowed in the mid 2010s, as widebody twin jets now offer similar range and greater fuel efficiency, giving airlines more flexibility at a lower upfront cost. On 25 September 2020, Airbus completed assembly of the final A380 fuselage. Nine aircraft remained to be delivered (eight for Emirates, one for All Nippon Airways) and production operations continued to finish those aircraft. On 17 March 2021, the final Airbus A380 (manufacturing serial number 272) made its maiden flight from Toulouse to Hamburg for cabin outfitting, before being delivered to Emirates on 16 December 2021. ==Design==

fuselage Overview The A380 was initially offered in two models: the A380-800 and the A380F. The A380-800's original configuration carried 555 passengers in a three-class configuration or 853 passengers (538 on the main deck and 315 on the upper deck) in a single-class economy configuration. In May 2007, Airbus began marketing a configuration with 30 fewer passengers (525 total in three classes) – traded for more range – to better reflect trends in premium-class accommodation. The design range for the A380−800 model is ; capable of flying from Hong Kong to New York or from Sydney to Istanbul non-stop. The A380 is designed for 19,000 cycles. The second model, the A380F freighter, would have carried of cargo over a range of . Freighter development was put on hold as Airbus prioritised the passenger version, and all orders for freighters were cancelled. Other proposed variants included an A380-900 stretchseating about 656 passengers (or up to 960 passengers in an all-economy configuration)and an extended-range version with the same passenger capacity as the A380-800. The Trent 900 is a combination of the fan and scaled compressor of the 777-200X/300X Trent 8104 technology demonstrator derived from the Boeing 777's Trent 800, and the Airbus A340-500/600's Trent 500 core. Due to its modern engines and aerodynamic improvements, Lufthansa's A380s produce half the noise of the Boeing 747-200 while carrying 160 more passengers. In 2012, the A380 received an award from the Noise Abatement Society. London Heathrow is a key destination for the A380. Field measurements suggest the approach quota allocation for the A380 may be excessively generous compared to the older Boeing 747, but still quieter. Rolls-Royce is supporting the CAA in understanding the relatively high A380/Trent 900 monitored noise levels. Due to Heathrow's landing charges having a noise component, the A380 is cheaper to land there than a Boeing 777-200 and -300 and it saves $4,300 to $5,200 (2017 prices) per landing, or $15.3M to $18.8M (2017 prices) of present value over 15 years. Tokyo Narita has a similar noise charge. The A380 has thrust reversers on the inboard engines only. The outboard engines lack them, reducing the amount of debris stirred up during landing. The combination of wheel braking and large spoilers and flaps reduces the aircraft's reliance on thrust reversal. Having reversers on only two engines also saves a great deal of maintenance expense for operators as well as avoiding unnecessary weight to the outboard engines. The optimal wingspan for such an MTOW is about but airport restrictions of force the A380 to compensate with a longer chord for an aspect ratio of 7.8. by about 10% and increases operating costs several per cent, considering fuel costs constitute about 50% of the cost of long-haul aeroplane operation. The common wing design approach sacrifices fuel efficiency on the A380-800 passenger model in particular because its lower MTOW allows for a higher aspect ratio with a shorter chord or thinner wing. Still, Airbus estimated that the A380's size and advanced technology would provide lower operating costs per passenger than the 747-400. The wings incorporate wingtip fences that extend above and below the wing surface, similar to those on the A310 and A320. These increase fuel efficiency and range by reducing induced drag. The wingtip fences also reduce wake turbulence, which endangers following aircraft. The wings of the A380 were designed in Filton, England and Wichita, US, with its manufacturing in Broughton in the United Kingdom. The wings were then transported to the harbour of Mostyn, where they were transported by barge to Toulouse, France, for integration and final assembly with the rest of the aircraft and its components. Singapore Airlines describes the A380's landing speed of as "impressively slow". Materials While most of the fuselage is made of aluminium alloys, composite materials comprise more than 20% of the A380's airframe. Carbon-fibre reinforced plastic, glass-fibre reinforced plastic and quartz-fibre reinforced plastic are used extensively in wings, fuselage sections (such as the undercarriage and rear end of fuselage), tail surfaces, and doors. The A380 is the first commercial airliner to have a central wing box made of carbon–fibre reinforced plastic. It is also the first to have a smoothly contoured wing cross–section. The wings of other commercial airliners are partitioned span-wise into sections. This flowing continuous cross section reduces aerodynamic drag. Thermoplastics are used in the leading edges of the slats. The hybrid fibre metal laminate material GLARE (glass laminate aluminium reinforced epoxy) is used in the upper fuselage and on the stabilisers' leading edges. This aluminium-glass-fibre laminate is lighter and has better corrosion and impact resistance than conventional aluminium alloys used in aviation. Unlike earlier composite materials, GLARE can be repaired using conventional aluminium repair techniques. Newer weldable aluminium alloys are used in the A380's airframe. This enabled the widespread use of laser beam welding manufacturing techniques, eliminating rows of rivets and resulting in a lighter, stronger structure. High-strength aluminium (type 7449) reinforced with carbon fibre was used in the wing brackets of the first 120 A380s to reduce weight, but cracks were discovered and newer sets of the more critical brackets are made of standard aluminium 7010, increasing weight by 90kg (198lb). Repair costs for earlier aircraft were expected to be around €500million (US$629million). It takes of paint to cover the exterior of an A380. The paint is five layers thick and weighs about 650kg (1,433lb) when dry. Avionics The A380 employs an integrated modular avionics (IMA) architecture, first used in advanced military aircraft, such as the Lockheed Martin F-22 Raptor, Lockheed Martin F-35 Lightning II, and Dassault Rafale. The main IMA systems on the A380 were developed by the Thales Group. The data networks use Avionics Full-Duplex Switched Ethernet, an implementation of ARINC 664. These are switched, full-duplex, star-topology and based on 100baseTX fast-Ethernet. This reduces the amount of wiring required and minimises latency. Airbus used similar cockpit layout, procedures and handling characteristics to other Airbus aircraft, reducing crew training costs. The A380 has an improved glass cockpit, using fly-by-wire flight controls linked to side-sticks. The cockpit has eight liquid crystal displays, all physically identical and interchangeable; comprising two primary flight displays, two navigation displays, one engine parameter display, one system display and two multi-function displays. The MFDs were introduced on the A380 to provide an easy-to-use interface to the flight management system – replacing three multifunction control and display units. They include QWERTY keyboards and trackballs, interfacing with a graphical "point-and-click" display system. The Network Systems Server (NSS) is the heart of A380s paperless cockpit; it eliminates bulky manuals and traditional charts. The NSS has enough inbuilt robustness to eliminate onboard backup paper documents. The A380s network and server system stores data and offers electronic documentation, providing a required equipment list, navigation charts, performance calculations, and an aircraft logbook. This is accessed through the MFDs and controlled via the keyboard interface. They have self-contained hydraulic and electrical power supplies. Electro-hydrostatic actuators (EHA) are used in the aileron and elevator, electric and hydraulic motors to drive the slats as well as electrical backup hydrostatic actuators (EBHA) for the rudder and some spoilers. The A380's 350bar (35MPa or 5,000psi) hydraulic system is a significant difference from the typical 210bar (21MPa or 3,000psi) hydraulics used on most commercial aircraft since the 1940s. First used in military aircraft, high-pressure hydraulics reduce the weight and size of pipelines, actuators and related components. The 350bar pressure is generated by eight de-clutchable hydraulic pumps. The hydraulic lines are typically made from titanium; the system features both fuel- and air-cooled heat exchangers. Self-contained electrically powered hydraulic power packs serve as backups for the primary systems, instead of a secondary hydraulic system, saving weight and reducing maintenance. The A380 uses four 150kVA variable-frequency electrical generators, eliminating constant-speed drives and improving reliability. The A380 uses aluminium power cables instead of copper for weight reduction. The electrical power system is fully computerised and many contactors and breakers have been replaced by solid-state devices for better performance and increased reliability. the electronic control box (ECB), and mounting hardware. The APU in use on the A380 is the PW 980A APU. The APU primarily provides air to power the Air Generation System (AGS) on the ground and to start the engines. 40% more than the next largest airliner, the Boeing 747-8. The cabin has features to reduce traveller fatigue such as a quieter interior and higher pressurisation than previous generations of aircraft; the A380 is pressurised to the equivalent altitude of up to . Seating options range from 3-room "residence" in first class to 11-across in economy. A380 economy seats are up to wide in a 10-abreast configuration, compared with the 10-abreast configuration on the 747-400 that typically has seats wide. On other aircraft, economy seats range from in width. The A380's upper and lower decks are connected by two stairways, one fore and one aft, both wide enough to accommodate two passengers side by side; this cabin arrangement allows multiple seat configurations. The maximum certified carrying capacity is 853 passengers in an all-economy-class layout, and average around 480–490 seats. Air Austral's proposed 840 passenger layout has not come to fruition. The A380's interior illumination system uses bulbless LEDs in the cabin, cockpit, and cargo decks. The LEDs in the cabin can be altered to create an ambience simulating daylight, night, or intermediate levels. On the outside of the aircraft, HID lighting is used for brighter illumination. Airbus's publicity has stressed the comfort and space of the A380 cabin, and advertised onboard relaxation areas such as bars, beauty salons, duty-free shops, and restaurants. which largely gave way to regular seats for greater passenger capacity. and that it was ultimately the airlines' decision how to configure the interior. Due to delivery delays, Singapore Airlines and Air France debuted their seat designs on different aircraft prior to the A380. Initial operators typically configured their A380s for three-class service, while adding extra features for passengers in premium cabins. Launch customer Singapore Airlines introduced partly enclosed first-class suites on its A380s in 2007, each featuring a leather seat with a separate bed; center suites could be joined to create a double bed. A year later, Qantas debuted a new first-class seat-bed and a sofa lounge at the front of the upper deck on its A380s, and in 2009, Air France unveiled an upper deck electronic art gallery. In late 2008, Emirates introduced "shower spas" in first class on its A380s allowing each first class passenger five minutes of hot water, drawing on 2.5 tonnes of water, although only 60% of it was used. In addition to lounge areas, some A380 operators have installed amenities consistent with other aircraft in their respective fleets, including self-serve snack bars, premium economy sections, File:Airbus A380-861, Emirates AN1721793.jpg|Ten-abreast old economy class seating on the main deck on an Emirates A380 File:Airbus A380-861, Emirates AN1385446.jpg|Emirates A380's old business class File:Etihad Airways aircraft interiors demo ITB 2017 (08).JPG|Etihad Airways A380's The Residence suite File:Emirates Airbus A380-861 onboard bar Iwelumo.jpg|Emirates A380's onboard lounge and bar File:Emirates A380 Shower SPA ITB2014.jpg|Emirates A380's shower and spa Integration with infrastructure and regulations Ground operations with separate jetways for the main and upper decks, and ground support equipment on a Qatar Airways A380 In the 1990s, aircraft manufacturers were planning to introduce larger planes than the Boeing 747. In a common effort of the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) with manufacturers, airports and its member agencies, the "80-metre box" was created, the airport gates allowing planes up to wingspan and length to be accommodated. Airbus designed the A380 according to these guidelines, and to operate safely on Group V runways and taxiways with a loadbearing width. The US FAA initially opposed this, then in July 2007, the FAA and EASA agreed to let the A380 operate on runways without restrictions. The A380-800 is approximately 30% larger in overall size than the 747-400. Runway lighting and signage may need changes to provide clearance to the wings and avoid blast damage from the engines. Runways, runway shoulders and taxiway shoulders may be required to be stabilised to reduce the likelihood of foreign object damage caused to (or by) the outboard engines, which are more than from the centre line of the aircraft, compared to for the 747-400, and 747-8. Airbus measured pavement loads using a 540-tonne (595short tons) ballasted test rig, designed to replicate the landing gear of the A380. The rig was towed over a section of pavement at Airbus's facilities that had been instrumented with embedded load sensors. It was determined that the pavement of most runways will not need to be reinforced despite the higher weight, The A380 requires service vehicles with lifts capable of reaching the upper deck, as well as tractors capable of handling the A380's maximum ramp weight. When using two jetway bridges the boarding time is 45 min, and when using an extra jetway to the upper deck it is reduced to 34 min. The A380 has an airport turnaround time of 90–110 minutes. In 2008, the A380 test aircraft were used to trial the modifications made to several airports to accommodate the type. Takeoff and landing separation As of 2023, the A380 is the only aircraft in wake turbulence category Super (J). Maintenance As the A380 fleet grows older, airworthiness authority rules require certain scheduled inspections from approved aircraft tool shops. The increasing fleet size (at the time projected to reach 286 aircraft in 2020) cause expected maintenance and modification to cost $6.8billion for 2015–2020, of which $2.1billion are for engines. Emirates performed its first 3C-check for 55 days in 2014. During lengthy shop stays, some airlines will use the opportunity to install new interiors. ==Operational history==

Singapore Airlines flew the inaugural commercial flight from Singapore to Sydney on 25 October 2007. In February 2009, the one millionth passenger was flown with Singapore Airlines and by May of that year 1,500,000 passengers had flown on 4,200 flights. Air France received its first A380 in October 2009. Lufthansa received its first A380 in May 2010. By July 2010, the 31 A380s then in service had transported 6 million passengers on 17,000 flights between 20 international destinations. Airbus delivered the 100th A380 on 14 March 2013 to Malaysia Airlines. In June 2014, over 65 million passengers had flown the A380, and more than 100 million passengers (averaging 375 per flight) by September 2015, with an availability of 98.5%. In 2014, Emirates stated that its A380 fleet had load factors of 90–100%, and that the popularity of the aircraft with its passengers had not decreased in the past year. , the global A380 fleet had carried over 300 million passengers to more than 70 destinations and completed more than 800,000 flights over 7.3million block hours with 99 per cent operational reliability and no hull-loss accidents. Over 50% of A380 capacity is from, to, or within the Asia-Pacific region, of which around 15% is on regional flights within Asia (OAG 2017). ==Proposed variants==

While the A380-800 was the only model put into production, other variants were proposed that might have made the design more appealing in shifting market conditions. A380F Airbus offered a cargo aircraft variant, called the A380F, since at least June 2005, capable of transporting a maximum payload over a range. It would have the largest payload capacity of any freighter aircraft except the Antonov An-225 Mriya. Production was suspended until the A380 production lines had settled, with no firm availability date. but was not any more in April. A patent for a "combi" version was applied for. This version would offer the flexibility of carrying both passengers and cargo, along with being rapidly reconfigurable to expand or contract the cargo area and passenger area as needed for a given flight. A380 Stretch, A380-900 At launch in December 2000, a 656-seat A380-200 was proposed as a derivative of the 555-seat baseline, called the A380 Stretch. In November 2007, Airbus top sales executive and chief operating officer John Leahy confirmed plans for another enlarged variant – the A380-900 – with more seating space than the A380-800. The A380-900 would have had a seating capacity for 650 passengers in standard configuration and for approximately 900 passengers in an economy-only configuration. Airlines that expressed an interest in the A380-900 included Emirates, Virgin Atlantic, Cathay Pacific, Air France, KLM, Lufthansa, Kingfisher Airlines, and leasing company ILFC. In May 2010, Airbus announced that A380-900 development would be postponed until production of the A380-800 stabilised. On 11 December 2014, at the annual Airbus Investor Day forum, Airbus CEO Fabrice Bregier controversially announced, "We will one day launch an A380neo and one day launch a stretched A380". This statement followed speculation sparked by Airbus CFO Harald Wilhelm that Airbus could possibly axe the A380 ahead of its time due to softening demand. On 15 June 2015, John Leahy, Airbus's chief operating officer for customers, stated that Airbus was again looking at the A380-900 programme. Airbus's newest concept would be a stretch of the A380-800 offering 50 seats more – not 100 seats as originally envisaged. This stretch would be tied to a potential re-engining of the A380-800. According to Flight Global, an A380-900 would make better use of the A380's existing wing. A380neo On 15 June 2015, Reuters reported that Airbus was discussing an improved and stretched version of the A380 with at least six customers. The aircraft, called the A380neo, featured new engines and would accommodate an additional fifty passengers. Deliveries to customers were planned for sometime in 2020 or 2021. On 19 July 2015, Airbus CEO Fabrice Brégier stated that the company will build a new version of the A380 featuring new improved wings and new engines. Speculation about the development of a so-called A380neo ("neo" for "new engine option") had been going on for a few months after earlier press releases in 2014, and in 2015, the company was considering whether to end production of the type prior to 2018 and a new engine version, i.e. A380neo. Brégier also revealed that the new variant would be ready to enter service by 2020. The engine would most likely be one of a variety of all-new options from Rolls-Royce, ranging from derivatives of the A350's XWB-84/97 to the future Advance project due at around 2020. On 3 June 2016, Emirates President Tim Clark stated that talks between Emirates and Airbus on the A380neo have "lapsed". On 12 June 2017, Fabrice Brégier confirmed that Airbus would not launch an A380neo, stating "...there is no business case to do that, this is absolutely clear." However, Brégier stated it would not stop Airbus from looking at what could be done to improve the performance of the aircraft. One such proposal is a wingspan extension to reduce drag and increase fuel efficiency by 4%, though further increase is likely to be seen on the aircraft with new Sharklets like on the A380plus. In June 2023, despite A380 production having ceased, Clark renewed his plea for a re-engined A380neo, suggesting that a next-generation Rolls-Royce UltraFan could give a 25% reduction in fuel burn and emissions. A380plus At the June 2017 Paris Air Show, Airbus proposed an enhanced variant, called the A380plus, with 13% lower costs per seat, featuring up to 80 more seats through better use of cabin space, split scimitar winglets and wing refinements allowing a 4% fuel economy improvement, and longer aircraft maintenance intervals with less downtime. The A380plus' maximum takeoff weight would have been increased by to , allowing it to carry more passengers over the same range or increase the range by . Winglet mockups, high, were displayed on the MSN04 test aircraft at Le Bourget.