The term
anaphora is actually used in two ways. In a broad sense, it denotes the act of referring. Any time a given expression (e.g. a pro-form) refers to another contextual entity, anaphora is present. In a second, narrower sense, the term
anaphora denotes the act of referring backwards in a dialog or text, such as referring to the left when an anaphor points to its left toward its antecedent in languages that are written from left to right. Etymologically,
anaphora derives from
Ancient Greek (, ), from (, ) + (, ). In this narrow sense, anaphora stands in contrast to
cataphora, which sees the act of referring in a dialog or text, or pointing to the in languages that are written from left to right: Ancient Greek (, ), from (, ) + . A pro-form is a cataphor when it points to its right toward its postcedent. Both effects together are called either anaphora (broad sense) or less ambiguously, along with
self-reference they comprise the category of endophora. Examples of anaphora (in the narrow sense) and cataphora are given next. Anaphors and cataphors appear in bold, and their antecedents and postcedents are underlined: ::
Anaphora (in the narrow sense, species of endophora) ::a. Susan dropped the plate.
It shattered loudly. – The pronoun
it is an anaphor; it points to the left toward its antecedent
the plate. ::b. The music stopped, and
that upset everyone. – The demonstrative pronoun
that is an anaphor; it points to the left toward its antecedent
The music stopped. ::c. Fred was angry, and
so was I. – The adverb
so is an anaphor; it points to the left toward its antecedent
angry. ::d. If Sam buys a new bike, I shall
do it as well. – The verb phrase
do it is an anaphor; it points to the left toward its antecedent
buys a new bike. ::
Cataphora (included in the broad sense of anaphora, species of endophora) ::a. Because
he was very cold, David put on his coat. – The pronoun
he is a cataphor; it points to the right toward its postcedent
David. ::b. Although Sam might
do so, I shall not buy a new bike. – The verb phrase
do so is a cataphor; it points to the right toward its postcedent
buy a new bike. ::c. In
their free time, the boys play video games. – The possessive adjective
their is a cataphor; it points to the right toward its postcedent
the boys. A further distinction is drawn between endophoric and
exophoric reference. Exophoric reference occurs when an expression, an exophor, refers to something that is not directly present in the linguistic context, but is rather present in the situational context. Deictic pro-forms are stereotypical exophors, e.g. ::
Exophora ::a.
This garden hose is better than
that one. – The demonstrative adjectives
this and
that are exophors; they point to entities in the situational context. ::b. Jerry is standing over
there. – The adverb
there is an exophor; it points to a location in the situational context. Exophors cannot be anaphors as they do not substantially refer within the dialog or text, though there is a question of what portions of a conversation or document are accessed by a listener or reader with regard to whether all references to which a term points within that language stream are noticed (i.e., if you hear only a fragment of what someone says using the pronoun
her, you might never discover who
she is, though if you heard the rest of what the speaker was saying on the same occasion, you might discover who
she is, either by anaphoric revelation or by exophoric implication because you realize who
she must be according to what else is said about
her even if
her identity is not explicitly mentioned, as in the case of
homophoric reference). A listener might, for example, realize through listening to other clauses and sentences that
she is
a Queen because of some of her attributes or actions mentioned. But which queen? Homophoric reference occurs when a generic phrase obtains a specific meaning through knowledge of its context. For example, the referent of the phrase
the Queen (using an emphatic
definite article, not the less specific
a Queen, but also not the more specific
Queen Elizabeth) must be determined by the context of the utterance, which would identify the identity of the queen in question. Until further revealed by additional contextual words, gestures, images or other
media, a listener would not even know what monarchy or historical period is being discussed, and even after hearing
her name is
Elizabeth does not know, even if an English-UK Queen Elizabeth becomes indicated, if this queen means
Queen Elizabeth I or
Queen Elizabeth II and must await further clues in additional communications. Similarly, in discussing 'The Mayor' (of a city), the Mayor's identity must be understood broadly through the context which the speech references as general 'object' of understanding; is a particular human person meant, a current or future or past office-holder, the office in a strict legal sense, or the office in a general sense which includes activities a mayor might conduct, might even be expected to conduct, while they may not be explicitly defined for this office. == In generative grammar ==