Former Czechoslovakia In
Czechoslovakia, the Candidate of Sciences (, ) and Doctor of Sciences (, ) degrees were modeled precisely after the Soviet system through Law 60/1953, passed in 1953. Requirements to attain the degree were thus the same as in the USSR. Since all Czechoslovak top academic research institutions were dissolved after the
Communist Putsch in 1948, the supreme academic authority was the
Czechoslovak Academy of Sciences, newly established in 1953. The degree could also be awarded by the
Slovak Academy of Sciences and universities. The abbreviation of the degree is
CSc. (), added behind the bearer's name after a comma. There have been other academic degrees in Czechoslovakia and its successional states that incorporate the "Dr." abbreviation, e.g.: •
JUDr. (, , , ) •
PhDr. (, , , ) •
RNDr. (, , , ) and others. These doctor degrees are not to be confused with a Ph.D., although its holders are addressed as "doctor." Applicants need a masters degree (5 years +) or a comparable degree with excellent grades. This degree is stated before names and awarded after writing a rigorous thesis of 50,000 to 80,000 words and defending it at a
viva voce exam in at least 2-3 related fields of doctoral studies. •
MUDr. () is a "Doctor of Medicine" degree equivalent to the North-American
MD, attained after 6-year university studies. •
MVDr. () is a "Doctor of
Veterinary" akin to
DVM. •
RSDr. () was a quasi-degree, awarded exclusively to functionaries of the
Communist Party of Czechoslovakia (KSČ) during the
Communist era, whether or not they had "graduated" from the
Political College of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of Czechoslovakia. The leading subject taught was
Marxism-Leninism and there was no need to have completed even a secondary school to attain the degree. RSDr. was also possible to attain at some military universities, however, contrary to the previous case, the applicant had to pass further exams.
Czechia Granting CSc. was abolished in 1998 and replaced with Ph.D. or Th.D. () An applicant is required to have masters degree (or its equivalent, e.g.
Engineer (Ing.) in technical and economic university programs, or
Doctor of Medicine (MUDr.),
Doctor of Veterinary Medicine (MVDr.) in medical university programs), enroll in an approximately three-year post-graduate program, and defend their dissertation before a panel of expert examiners appointed by the university.
Slovakia The Candidate of Science degree was abolished in 1996 and replaced with PhD. (, in Latin:
philosophiae doctor). Requirements are similar to the Czech system.
Poland Since the medieval period, Polish tradition was to call any Ph.D. equivalent
doktor, though for a short period of time between 1951 and 1958, the communist government tried to replace the title of
doktor with
kandydat nauk (Candidate of Science) to follow the Soviet model.
Former Soviet Union, Russia, Belarus In the USSR, at least three original scientific papers published and/or submitted are required for completion. At least one paper is required to appear in one of the journals listed by the Higher Assessment Commission (VAK) of the Russian Ministry of Science. In
Belarus, all three publications must be published in the journals listed by the VAK. In 1971, there were 249,200 scientists holding a Candidate degree. According to the official
Guidelines for the Recognition of Russian Qualifications in Other Countries, in countries with a two-tier system of doctoral degrees, the degree of Candidate of Sciences should be considered to be equivalent to the first level of that nation's doctoral degree. In countries with only one doctoral degree, the degree of Candidate of Sciences should be considered an equivalent to this degree.
Kazakhstan Kazakhstan previously followed the Soviet two-tier academic degree system which included the Candidate of Sciences () and
Doctor of Sciences (), awarded and recognized by the
Higher Attestation Commission under the
Ministry of Education and Science of Kazakhstan (VAK RK). Following the country's accession to the
Bologna Process in 2010, Kazakhstan transitioned to the
terminal degree system, formally abolishing the Candidate of Sciences degree in 2011 through Order No. 127 by the Minister of Education and Science:
On Approval of the Rules for Awarding Degrees. The new system now recognizes
Doctor of Philosophy () and Doctor of Profile degrees, aligning with international standards. Although the Candidate of Sciences degree is no longer awarded, individuals who hold this qualification may still receive recognition for their academic accomplishments in Kazakhstan, depending on the field and institution.
Ukraine In 2014, with the adoption of the new Law of
Ukraine On Higher Education, the degree of Candidate of Sciences was replaced with the degree of
Doctor of Philosophy (PhD). According to the new law, the degree of Candidate of Sciences is equivalent to a PhD. This information is included in Candidate of Sciences diplomas issued after 2014. In 2015, graduate students were enrolled in the Candidate of Sciences programs for the last time. The form "Candidate of Science" (singular) is used on the English-language page of bilingual diplomas of Candidate of Sciences issued after 2014 (until 2014, the Candidate of Sciences diplomas in Ukraine contained Ukrainian text only). As of 2024, those who were enrolled in the Candidate of Sciences programs until 2015 still may defend their theses and obtain the Candidate of Sciences degree. == Fields of Science ==