The name, which is derived from Alaka Isvara, is most likely an altered version of Alaka Bhatara. Two sources are used to determine the regnal date of 1363. First,
Mpu Prapanca states in 1365 that Buruneng in Borneo was a vassal of Majapahit;
Sung Lien and the
Ming Shih affirm this in 1371. According to both of these texts, the ruler of Brunei is named Ma-ho-mo-sha, which
Paul Pelliot reinterprets as Mahmud Shah. Along with that, the exact timing of Brunei's first ruler converting to Islam is uncertain. Although some suggest that Awang Alak Betatar, may have ruled before the 14th century, Portuguese records imply that Brunei's king was still a
pagan as late as 1513. In letters from that year, Portuguese officials noted that Bruneian nobles visiting
Malacca were Muslim, yet their king was not. It wasn't until 1515, according to
Tomé Pires, that Brunei's ruler converted to Islam. Thus, Sultan Muhammad Shah's conversion likely occurred between 1514 and 1515, challenging earlier assumptions about an earlier Muslim leadership in Brunei. The early history of Brunei is complex, characterised by discrepancies between Chinese sources and local Bruneian accounts such as the ''
. Chinese records mention figures like Raja Ma-na-je-chia-na (Maharaja Karna) and his son Hsia Wang (Raja Kecil''), aided by Ismail and Mahmud, ruling Brunei until 1425. In contrast, the genealogy skips these figures, instead naming Sultan Ahmad (Pateh Berbai or Ong Sum Ping) after Muhammad Shah. This divergence underscores the uncertain early succession of Brunei's sultans and suggests the genealogy might incorporate distinct oral traditions. Spanish texts from the
Boxer Codex (1590) mention Sultan Yusuf as Brunei's purported Islamic state founder, adding another layer to the historical discourse. The presence of Ismail in both Chinese accounts—first as Muhammad Shah's envoy to China in 1371 and later as Hsia Wang's grandfather's uncle in 1421—suggests a significant historical link between Chinese-documented Ma-na-je-chia-na and Brunei's sultanate. == Legends ==