. Perhaps the earliest photograph of men drinking beer Brewing in Scotland goes back 5,000 years; it is suggested that ale could have been made from barley at
Skara Brae and at other sites dated to the
Neolithic. The ale would have been flavoured with
meadowsweet in the manner of a
kvass or
gruit made by various North European tribes including the
Celts and the
Picts. The ancient Greek
Pytheas remarked in 325 BC that the inhabitants of Caledonia were skilled in the art of brewing a potent beverage. The use of bittering herbs such as
heather,
bog-myrtle, and
broom Thomas Pennant wrote in
A Tour in Scotland (1769) that on the island of
Islay "ale is frequently made of the young tops of heath, mixing two-thirds of that plant with one of malt, sometimes adding hops". Though, as in the rest of Britain, hops had replaced herbs in Scotland by the end of the 19th century, this Celtic tradition of using bittering herbs was revived in
Brittany, France, during 1990 by
Brasserie Lancelot, and in Scotland by the Williams Brothers two years later. Even though ancient brewing techniques and ingredients remained in use later in Scotland than in the rest of the UK, the general pattern of development was the same, with brewing mainly in the hands of "broustaris", or alewives, and monasteries, just as it was throughout Europe; though, as with brewing ingredients, the trend was for developments to move more slowly. The
Leges Quatuor Burgorum, a code of
burgh laws, showed that in 1509 Aberdeen had over 150 brewers – all women; and this compares with figures for London which show that of 290 brewers, around 40% were men. After the Reformation in the 1560s commercial brewing started to become more organised, as shown by the formation in 1598 of the Edinburgh Society of Brewers – though London had formed its Brewers' Guild over 250 years earlier in 1342. However, after the
Acts of Union 1707, new commercial opportunities emerged that proved a substantial stimulus to Scottish brewers. Tax on beer was lower than in other parts of the United Kingdom, and there was no tax on malt in Scotland – this gave Scottish brewers a financial advantage. During the 18th century some of the best-remembered names in Scottish brewing established themselves, such as William Younger in Edinburgh, Robert &
Hugh Tennent in Glasgow, and George Younger in Alloa. In
Dunbar in 1719, for example, Dudgeon & Company's
Belhaven Brewery was founded. Scottish brewers, especially those in Edinburgh, were about to rival the biggest brewers in the world. Some available information from brewing and trade records shows that brewers in the
India Pale Ale (IPA) export trade in Edinburgh used hops as much as English brewers, and that the strong, hoppy ale that Hodgeson was exporting to India and which became known as IPA, was copied and brewed in Edinburgh in 1821, a year before Allsopp is believed to have first brewed it in Burton. Robert Disher's brewery in the Canongate area of Edinburgh had such a success with his hoppy Edinburgh Pale Ale that the other Edinburgh brewers followed, exporting strong, hoppy Scottish beer throughout the British Empire, and into Russia and America. The beer historians Charles McMaster and Martyn Cornell have both shown that the sales figures of Edinburgh's breweries rivalled those of Dublin and Burton upon Trent. Charles McMaster, the "leading historian of the Scottish brewing industry" according to Roger Protz, believes that the hard water of Edinburgh was particularly suitable for the brewing of
pale ale – especially the water from the wells on the "charmed circle" of Holyrood through Canongate, Cowgate, Grassmarket and Fountainbridge; and that due to the quality of this water, brewer Robert Disher was able to launch a hoppy Edinburgh Pale Ale in 1821. While Martyn Cornell in
Beer: The Story of The Pint, shows that when the brewers of
Burton in the late 19th century were exporting their hoppy Burton Ales in the form of
India Pale Ale, so were the
William McEwan and William Younger breweries. When the Burton brewers exported strong malty Burton Ales, so did the Edinburgh brewers, under the name
Scotch Ale. The Edinburgh brewers had a very large and well-respected export trade to the British colonies rivalling that of the Burton brewers. By the mid-19th century Edinburgh had forty breweries and was "acknowledged as one of the foremost brewing centres in the world". Some writers, such as Pete Brown in
Man Walks into a Pub, believe that beer brewed in Scotland developed to be significantly different from beer brewed in England. The belief is that hops were used sparingly, and that the shilling designation was uniquely Scottish. However, a single pair of records can be cited indicating a similar use of hops in a Scottish pale ale to an English one. Dr John Harrison in
Old British Beers gave a recipe for the English brewery Brakspear's 1865
50/- Pale Ale in which 1.8 oz of hops are used per imperial gallon (11 grams per litre),{{cite book ==Scotch ales==