Bending (metalworking)

In press brake forming, the work piece is positioned over a die block and a punch then presses the sheet into the die block to form a shape. Usually bending has to overcome both tensile stresses and compressive stresses. When bending is done, the residual stresses cause the material to '' towards its original position, so the sheet must be over-bent to achieve the proper bend angle. The amount of spring back is dependent on the material, and the type of forming. When sheet metal is bent, it stretches in length. The bend deduction is the amount the sheet metal will stretch when bent as measured from the outside edges of the bend. The bend radius'' refers to the inside radius. The formed bend radius is dependent upon the dies used, the material properties, and the material thickness. The U-punch forms a U-shape with a single punch. ==Types==

There are three basic types of bending on a press brake, each is defined by the relationship of the end tool position to the thickness of the material. These three are Air Bending, Bottoming and Coining. The configuration of the tools for these three types of bending are nearly identical. A die with a long rail form tool with a radiused tip that locates the inside profile of the bend is called a punch. Punches are usually attached to the ram of the machine by clamps and move to produce the bending force. A die with a long rail form tool that has concave or V-shaped lengthwise channel that locate the outside profile of the form is called a die. Dies are usually stationary and located under the material on the bed of the machine. Note that some locations do not differentiate between the two different kinds of dies (punches and dies). The other types of bending listed use specially designed tools or machines to perform the work. Air bending This bending method forms material by pressing a punch (also called the upper or top die) into the material, forcing it into a bottom V-die, which is mounted on the press. The punch forms the bend so that the distance between the punch and the side wall of the V is greater than the material thickness (T). Either a V-shaped or square opening may be used in the bottom die (dies are frequently referred to as tools or tooling). Because it requires less bend force, air bending tends to use smaller tools than other methods. Some of the newer bottom tools are adjustable, so, by using a single set of top and bottom tools and varying press-stroke depth, different profiles and products can be produced. Different materials and thicknesses can be bent in varying bend angles, adding the advantage of flexibility to air bending. There are also fewer tool changes, thus, higher productivity. A disadvantage of air bending is that, because the sheet does not stay in full contact with the dies, it is not as precise as some other methods, and stroke depth must be kept very accurate. Variations in the thickness of the material and wear on the tools can result in defects in parts produced. Air bending's angle accuracy is approximately ±0.5 deg. Angle accuracy is ensured by applying a value to the width of the V opening, ranging from 6 T (six times material thickness) for sheets to 3 mm thick to 12 T for sheets more than 10 mm thick. Springback depends on material properties, influencing the resulting bend angle. Air bending does not require the bottom tool to have the same radius as the punch. Bend radius is determined by material elasticity rather than tool shape. also known as joggle bending, is an offset bending process in which two opposite bends with equal angles are formed in a single action creating a small s-shape bend profile and an offset between the unbent face and the result flange that is typically less than 5 material thicknesses. Often the offset will be one material thickness, in order to allow a lap joint where the edge of one sheet of material is laid on top of the other. ==Calculations==

Many variations of these formulas exist and are readily available online. These variations may often seem to be at odds with one another, but they are invariably the same formulas simplified or combined. What is presented here are the unsimplified formulas. All formulas use the following keys: • Lf = flat length of the sheet • BA = bend allowance • BD = bend deduction • R = inside bend radius • K = K-factor, which is t / T • T = material thickness • t = distance from inside face to the neutral axis • A = bend angle in degrees (the angle through which the material is bent) The 'neutral axis' (also called the neutral line) is an imaginary profile that can be drawn through a cross-section of the workpiece that represents the locus where no tensile or compressive stress are present but shear stresses are at their maximum. In the bend region, the material between the neutral line and the inside radius will be under compression during the bend while the material between the neutral line and the outside radius will be under tension during the bend. Its location in the material is a function of the forces used to form the part and the material yield and tensile strengths. This theoretical definition also coincides with the geometric definition of the plane representing the unbent flat pattern shape within the cross-section of the bent part. Furthermore, the bend allowance (see below) in air bending depends primarily on the width of the opening of the bottom die. As a result, the bending process is more complicated than it appears to be at first sight. Both bend deduction and bend allowance represent the difference between the neutral line or unbent 'flat pattern' (the required length of the material prior to bending) and the formed bend. Subtracting them from the combined length of both flanges gives the flat pattern length. The question of which to use is determined by the dimensioning method used to define the flanges as shown in the two diagrams below. The flat pattern length is always shorter in length than the sum of all the flange length dimensions due to the geometric transformation. This gives rise to the common perspective that that material is stretching during bending and the bend deduction and bend allowance are the distance that each bend stretches. While a helpful way to look at it, a careful examination of the formulas and stresses involved show this to be false. Most 3D Solid Modeling CAD software has sheet metal functions or add-ons that performs these calculations automatically. Bend allowance The 'bend allowance' (BA) is the length of the arc of the neutral line between the tangent points of a bend in any material. Adding the length of each flange as dimensioned by B in the diagram to the BA gives the Flat Pattern length. This bend allowance formula is used to determine the flat pattern length when a bend is dimensioned from 1) the center of the radius, 2) a tangent point of the radius (B) or 3) the outside tangent point of the radius on an acute angle bend (C). When dimensioned to the outside tangent, the material thickness and bend radius are subtracted from it to find the dimension to the tangent point of the radius before adding in the bend allowance. The BA can be estimated using the following formula, which incorporates the empirical K-factor: :BA = A \left( \frac{\pi}{180} \right) \left( R + (K \times T \right)) Bend deduction The bend deduction BD is defined as the difference between the sum of the flange lengths (from the edge to the apex) and the initial flat length. The outside set back (OSSB) is the length from the tangent point of the radius to the apex of the outside of the bend. The bend deduction (BD) is twice the outside setback minus the bend allowance. BD is calculated using the following formula, where A is the angle in radians (=degrees*π/180): :BD = 2 \left(R + T \right) \tan{ \frac{A}{2}} - BA For bends at 90 degrees this formula can be simplified to: :BD = R \left(2 - A \right) + T \left(2 - KA \right) K-factor K-factor is a ratio of the location of the neutral line to the material thickness as defined by t/T where t = location of the neutral line and T = material thickness. The K-factor formula does not take the forming stresses into account but is simply a geometric calculation of the location of the neutral line after the forces are applied and is thus the roll-up of all the unknown (error) factors for a given setup. The K-factor depends on many variables including the material, the type of bending operation (coining, bottoming, air-bending, etc.) the tools, etc. and is typically between 0.3 and 0.5. The following equation relates the K-factor to the bend allowance: : K = \frac{-R + \frac{BA}{\pi A / 180}}{T}. The following table is a "rule of thumb". Actual results may vary remarkably. The following formula can be used in place of the table as a good approximation of the K-factor for air bending: : K = \frac{\log \min\left(100, \frac{\max(20 R, T)}{T}\right)}{2 \log 100}. == Advantages and disadvantages ==

Bending is a cost-effective near net shape process when used for low to medium quantities. Parts usually are lightweight with good mechanical properties. A disadvantage is that some process variants are sensitive to variations in material properties. For instance, differences in spring-back have a direct influence on the resulting bend angle. To mitigate this, various methods for in-process control have been developed. Other approaches include combining brakeforming with incremental forming. Broadly speaking, each bend corresponds with a set-up (although sometimes, multiple bends can be formed simultaneously). The relatively large number of set-ups and the geometrical changes during bending make it difficult to address tolerances and bending errors a priori during set-up planning, although some attempts have been made ==See also==