Bombing of Braunschweig

The RAF first bombed on 17 August 1940, killing seven people, and the 94th Bombardment Group earned a Distinguished Service Cross for an 11 January 1944 mission against the Mühlenbau und Industrie Aktiengesellschaft (MIAG) components factory. As part of the Combined Bomber Offensive, was a regular target for (nighttime) RAF and (daytime) US attacks, including two "Big Week" attacks on 20 and 21 February 1944. The first major British bombing of was in the night beginning 14 January 1944, when nearly 500 Lancaster bombers attacked in the face of strong defence by German fighters. Being a relatively small target, most of the bombs missed the city. In an experimental raid, to see if bombing by radar alone (without target marking) was effective, nearly 400 heavy bombers raided during the night beginning 12 August 1944. No effective concentration of the bombs occurred, and nearby towns were bombed by mistake. Between those dates, fast Mosquito bombers were sent on occasional nuisance raids and diversions against . On 15 October 1944, No. 106 Squadron RAF bombed , and one of the last attacks was an attack on chemical plant in March 1945 as part of the campaign against synthetic oil production. ==Braunschweig in 1944==

was subjected to air raids despite the city being ringed by anti-aircraft guns. In January 1944, Bomber Command raids against "Stettin, Brunswick and Magdeburg" were suffering losses of 7.2 percentmore than in raids against Berlin that month. The targets included machine and munitions works, harbours, research institutions, canneries, railway stations and railway maintenance works, and the German Research Centre for Aviation. Targets near included the in Salzgitter and the Volkswagen factory in KdF-Stadt near Fallersleben. The nearby Oflag 79 prisoner-of-war camp was attacked on 24 August 1944. ==Preparation for the 15 October 1944 air raid==

Purpose of the raid On 13 October, the RAF received orders to carry out Operation Hurricane, to demonstrate the Allied bomber force's destructive power, and Allied air superiority. The orders included the following: Operation Hurricane foresaw Duisburg as the main goal for the RAF's thousand or so bombers, and Cologne for the USAAF's 1,200 or so bombers. A further 233 RAF bombers were detailed for , which had about 150,000 inhabitants in October 1944. Planning for the attack on was finalized by 15 August 1944. Darmstadt had been attacked on the night of 11 September 1944 using a new targeting technique: a fan-shaped flying formation, and the staggering of the use of explosive and incendiary bombs. Being a largely unprepared town, the resulting fires caused about 11,500 deaths. The Allies then turned their attention to . was to be largely destroyed, not only as an important centre of the armament industry, but also, and above all, as a place where people lived making it uninhabitable and useless. The goal, namely the greatest possible destruction, was to be achieved through detailed attack plans and careful execution, and also making careful use of the attributes of the materiel that was to be deployed. The means whereby the goal was to be reached was a firestorm, the production of which was to be no accident but developed through painstakingly detailed analysis. On 13 October, the chief meteorologist at RAF High Wycombe advised RAF Bomber Command headquarters of the weather forecast for the weekend of 14–15 October: slight cloudiness, good visibility throughout the night, and moderate winds. The next day, Air Marshal Arthur Harris issued the orders to carry out the attack on and other cities. RAF Bomber Command had sought in vain to inflict lasting destruction upon four times during 1944, failing each time as a result of, among other things, bad weather and strong defences. On 14 October 1944, preparations for the attack were finalized at No. 5 Group's headquarters at Morton Hall. ==October 1944 raid==

The raid coincided with a British thousand-bomber raid on Duisburg, the second on that city within 24 hours, a previous British attack having been made in daylight. The aircraft of No. 5 Group took off as planned at around 11pm on 14 October. The main force of the group were 233 four-engined Mark I and III Lancasters heavy bombers, each with a bomb load of about . The Lancasters were accompanied by 7 Mosquito fast light bombers. The bombers bound for took a course that ran to the south to avoid the Ruhr area, which was heavily defended by anti-aircraft batteries and fighter aircraft. Near Paderborn, the force turned towards the north, overflying Hanover and proceeding to . As was usual, the British actions for the night included a number of sorties to deceive the German defences about the true targets for the night. 141 training craft flew simulated attacks on Heligoland, 20 Mosquitos went to Hamburg, 8 to Mannheim, 16 to Berlin and 2 to Düsseldorf. They were supported by 140 special operations aircraft of 100 Group RAF, which deployed electronic warfare measures against German night-fighter defences. Strips of tinfoil (codenamed "Window") were scattered into the air in large amounts to jam the German air defence system's radar stations, thereby rendering them nearly useless. The feint against Mannheim, which German forces expected to be the main target, left the attack unopposed. The siren signal alerting to an air raid was sounded at about 1:50am on 15 October. Target marking The Mosquitos of No. 5 Group marked the target for the main force. No. 5 Group had developed its own techniques separate to the Pathfinder Force and was using "sector bombing". It used the cathedral as a reckoning point for the "master bomber" in the lead plane. Over the the site of Braunschweig Cathedrala green flare was dropped, a so-called blind marker. Other Mosquitos dropped their markers of various colours, lighting the target up. The first red flare fell south-west of the city centre. The same aircraft then dropped about 60 flares from a height of , which slowly floated down to the ground, each burning for about 3–7 minutes. Those lit markers were called () by the Germans, due to their characteristic appearance. Given the clear night, the problem-free overflight, and the flawless marking of the target, the conditions for the attack were optimal, from the British point of view. The green marker on the served to guide the bomb aimers in all following aircraft, who flew in over it from various directions in a fan-shaped formation, whereupon they dropped their bombs. RAF filming during night beginning 14 October 1944. A Lancaster drops "Window" to confuse enemy radar (left), then incendiary bombs and a "cookie". This raid on was filmed by a Lancaster of the RAF Film Production Unit, outfitted for the task with three Eyemo-type cameras. The camera plane flew over , along with the rest of the bombers, at a height of at . The time of the onset of the attack was noted as 2:33am. A copy of the film is held by the The film is accompanied by the following note: The firestorm About of bombs were dropped on the city. First to be deployed were about 12,000 explosive bombsso-called blockbustersin a carpet bombing of the old timber-framed town centre to start the intended firestorm by smashing up the wooden houses. Blast waves blew the roofs off houses, exposing the insides, blew windowpanes out, splintered the inner structure, broke walls down, tore electricity and water supplies up, and drove firefighters and rescue service personnel into cellars and bunkers, along with damage observers. After the wave of explosive bombs, about 200,000 phosphorus and incendiary bombs were dropped, which were designed to ignite the destroyed buildings and create the firestorm, which would still be burning long after the bombers had returned to England. By about 3:10am, about 40 minutes after the first explosive bombs had been dropped, the attack was over. A hot mass of air rose rapidly upwards due to the powerful thermal generated by the conflagration. Cooler air rushed in to replace it, creating a windstorm. Winds blowing from all directions worsened the fires, further strengthening the winds, which became strong enough to sweep up small pieces of furniture and toss people about. Around three and a half hours later, towards 6:30am, the firestorm reached its peak in the city core. About of historic old were going up in flames. The city's tallest church steeplesthose of St. Andrew's were about tallcould be seen burning far beyond the town, and they also rained embers down over the whole city. The ruins of the city centre were littered with unexploded incendiary bombs, greatly hampering fire engines and rescue vehicles. The city burned so intensely and brightly that the light from the fire could be seen far and wide. From all directions, helpers and firefighters thronged into the burning town to help. They came from, among other places, Hanover to the west and Helmstedt in the east, from Celle to the north and Quedlinburg to the south. Within the 24 hours of Operation Hurricane, the RAF dropped a total of about of bombs on Duisburg and . Rescue of 23,000 trapped people About 23,000 people had sought refuge from the attack in six large bunkers and two air raid shelters in the area. While these thousands of people waited in seeming safety inside their thick-walled but quite overfilled shelters for the all-clear signal, the many fires in the city centre quickly merged into one widespread conflagration. The fire brigade very soon realized the threat to these peoplethe fire was growing ever hotter, and the oxygen in the bunkers and shelters thereby ever thinner. The danger was clearly that the victims would either suffocate for lack of oxygen if they stayed in their bunkers, or be burnt alive if they tried to leave and escape through the firestorm outside. Towards 5am, before the firestorm had reached its full intensity, the idea of building a () was suggested by lieutenant of the fire brigade. This alley would allow the people to flee their shelters for safer areas of the city. It consisted of a long hose that had to be kept under a constant water mist to shield it against the fire's tremendous heat as the firefighters led the hose through to the shelters where the people were trapped. The reach of each of the little jets issuing from the holes in the hose overlapped each other, making a continuous, artificial "rain zone". The bunkers were reached towards 7am Sunday morning, after the fire storm had reached its greatest intensity. All the trapped people were still alive, but had no idea what lay outside for them. All 23,000 managed to reach safer areas, such as the museum park. Only at the air shelter did help arrive too late: 95 of the 104 people inside had suffocated by the time the fire brigade reached them. The firestorm had been so intense in this particular part of the city that it had used up nearly all the oxygen, making saving more than 9 people impossible. Effects A large part of 's tightly packed city centre was made up of about 800 timber-frame houses, many of which dated back to the Middle Ages. The city also had stone buildings dating mainly to the 17th and 18th centuries. The old cathedral, which the RAF had used as a reckoning point for the whole operation, remained standing. However, many significant historic buildings were largely or completely destroyed. The next morning, 16 October, lay under a thick cloud of smoke. A British reconnaissance aircraft sent to take photographs of the bombing's aftermath for analysis had to return to England, as its mission had been rendered impossible by the opaque pall that hung over the town. By the evening of 17 October, the last of the fire's main hotspots had been put out, but it took another three days to quench lesser fires, until 20 October. 80,000 of the townsfolk were left homeless by the attack. The destruction was so widespread and thorough that ordinary people and experts alike, even years after the war, were convinced that the attack had come from one of the dreaded thousand-bomber attacks, such as the one that had laid Cologne waste. The extent of the damage could seemingly not otherwise be explained. Only after the British opened their military archives did it become plain that it had been "only" 233 bombers. Casualties The exact number of victims of the 15 October attack is unknown. Estimates ranged from 484 to 640 dead, 95 of those by suffocation at the shelter alone. However, historians now put the number at more than a thousand. These "light" lossescompared with those suffered in the great air raids on Dresden, Hamburg, Pforzheim and other German citiesaccording to expert opinions stem from various factors. For one thing, lay on the direct flight path, that is, the "lane" leading to Magdeburg and Berlin, and right near the armament industry centres of Salzgitter () and Wolfsburg (Volkswagen factory), meaning that s were used toeven in a sense "trained for"quickly responding to alarms (there were 2,040 warnings and 620 air raid alarms between 1939 and 1945). This may have prepared them for the attack, even though many of the earlier attacks from which they had sought shelter actually targeted other cities. Furthermore, the city also had at its disposal a great number of the latest type of air raid bunkers and blockhouses known as . Lastly, the fire brigade's water alley alone saved the lives of about 23,000 people. The RAF lost a single Lancaster bomber to anti-aircraft fire that night. Bunkers in Braunschweig Braunschweig Armour had, compared to other German cities, a great number of the most modern air raid bunkers, some of which were (), which nevertheless suffered from regular overcrowding as the war wore on. As modern and robust as they were, the fact is that the so-called Braunschweig Armour was developed at the Institute for Building Materials, Massive Construction and Fire Protection of the Technical University of Braunschweig. It became a kind of safety standard for building air raid bunkers throughout the Reich. Fire brigades from Braunschweig and other cities deployed against the firestorm According to estimates, especially during the night of the bombing as well as in the next six days until the last fires were put out, about 4,500 firefighters were deployed. They came from up to away, and included not only members of city fire brigades from, among other places, Blankenburg, Celle, Gifhorn, Hanover, Helmstedt, Hildesheim, Peine, Salzgitter, Wernigerode and Wolfenbüttel, but also volunteers and members of plant fire brigades at the various factories in and the surrounding area. Due to their efforts the city was not utterly burnt that night. ==Aftermath==

On 19 October, the number of dead was given as 405, and on 20 October a full-page necrology with 344 names was published. On 22 October, one week after the attack, a memorial was held for the victims, both at the Brunswick Cathedral and at the , the square in front of Palace. The same night, was again attacked heavily, this time by USAAF Boeing B-17 Flying Fortresses. The last air raid on occurred on the morning of 31 March 1945, carried out by the 392d Bombardment Group. Their main target was the east railway station. ==Statistics of destruction==

Population When World War II began, had 202,284 inhabitants. By the war's end, the population had fallen by 26.03% to 149,641. From the effects of war (mainly air raids but also their aftermath, such as having to dispose of, or otherwise make safe, the duds that the Allies dropped) about 2,905 people died, 1,286 of whom (44.3%) were foreigners. These foreigners were predominantly prisoners of war, forced labourers, and concentration camp inmates who worked in the armament industry, and who were forbidden access to air raid bunkers. Destruction of housing and infrastructure Exact figures are available only for destroyed houses and flats. By the time the war was over, about 20% of 's dwellings had been left completely undamaged, but about 24% of them had been utterly destroyed. The remaining 56% were somewhat damaged, with the extent of damage to any particular dwelling varying greatly with others. In 1943, before the area bombing of , there were 15,897 houses in the city, but by mid-1945, only 2,834 (about 18%) were left undamaged. The city also had 59,826 flats, of which 11,153 (about 19%) were still undamaged by the time the war ended. The level of destruction with regard to residential buildings stood at 35%, leading to homelessness for almost 80% of the townsfolk by war's end. Sixty percent of the city's places of cultural interest, including the municipal buildings, were likewise destroyed, along with about 50% of its industrial areas. Overall destruction rate and amount of rubble The destruction rate in 's downtown core (within the Oker Ring, the Oker being a river that encircles ) stood at about 90%, and the overall figure for as a whole was 42%. At the end of the war, an estimated of rubble had to be cleared. These figures put among Germany's most heavily damaged cities of World War II. ==After the war==

Reconstruction On 17 June 1946, the rubble clearing officially began in . The job took 17 years, with the city only officially declaring the task accomplished in 1963. In actuality however, smaller cleanups lasted years after that. 's reconstruction in the 1950s and 1960s proceeded very quickly, as housing was badly needed and the city's infrastructure had to be built from scratch. Since the downtown core was a rubble-strewn wasteland, city and spatial planners seized the chance to build a new, modern, and above all car-friendly city, an idea promoted by This once again led in many places to further destruction (through new roadways, for instance) and the removal of city scenery that had become historic, since in part the former city layout was ignored. Ruins were hastily torn down instead of being restored, and the car was raised as the new "yardstick" whereby the "new" was to be measured. Thus was wrought, especially in the downtown core, a "second destruction" of . The later destruction of historic buildings and cultural sites, such as the demolition of many mediaeval, baroque and classical buildings and the controversial demolition of the damaged Brunswick Palace in 1960 that was almost faithfully reconstruction only in 2007 ledmuch as with the in Dresden, the Berlin Palace and other prominent buildings in other citiesto a further loss of identity for the local people, and was the cause of much controversy for decades. Memorials Meaning and necessity of the destruction As early as 1943, the Anglican Bishop and Member of the House of Lords George Bell was putting forth the view that attacks such as these threatened the ethical foundations of Western civilization and destroyed any chance of future reconciliation between former foes. Since the end of World War II, the question has been raised as to whether the destruction of in October 1944 was still a military necessity given that the war was into its final phase. This is part of the debate on whether the destruction of other German cities and loss of life that occurred once the Allied strategic bomber forces were released from their tactical support of the Normandy landings and resumed the strategic bombing campaign in September 1944 (a campaign that would last without further interruption until days before the end of World War II in Europe in May 1945) can be morally justified. 15 October as a fixed point in the city's history In the Main Cemetery in Braunschweig is a memorial, together with the graves of many victims of the 15 October 1944 attack. Since the bombing, memorial events and exhibitions are held in on 14–15 October. The events of those two days also echo strongly in local historical literature. On 14–15 October 2004the sixtieth anniversary of the destruction of 's historic old townthere were once again many events. Among other memorials that took place was Benjamin Britten's War Requiem, conducted at the Cathedral in the presence of British Ambassador Peter Torry. ==Notes==