Brazil in World War II

Brazil's maritime losses were a significant factor in its decision to declare war on Germany and Italy. The country's traditional isolationist stance naturally positioned it against "disturbers of the international order and trade." Public sentiment and government actions culminated in Brazil's declaration of war on Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy in August 1942. That same year, US incentives and diplomatic pressure led to the establishment of airbases along the northeastern coast of Brazil. The FEB, which was planned following the Potenji River Conference and the Casablanca Conference, was not formally established until a year after the declaration of war. Deployment The FEB was deployed to the front in July 1944, nearly two years after Brazil's declaration of war, and was integrated into the Allied 15th Army Group. Of the 100,000 troops originally planned, about 25,000 were sent to Italy. Upon arrival, the FEB, trained and equipped by US forces, carried out the primary missions assigned by the Allied command. ==Pre-involvement==

Predecessors , 1936. In February 1942, German and Italian submarines began targeting Brazilian ships in the Atlantic Ocean. This was influenced by Brazil's adherence to the Atlantic Charter, which mandated automatic alignment with any American continent nation attacked by a foreign power. Brazil's gradual alignment with the United States was significant for its government, especially in light of German and Italian attempts to interfere in Brazilian internal affairs. The implementation of the Estado Novo made it increasingly difficult to maintain stable trade relations with these countries, particularly due to British and later US naval pressure. An element of this pressure was President Franklin D. Roosevelt's Good Neighbor policy, which included economic and commercial incentives such as financing the construction of the Companhia Siderúrgica Nacional (CSN). Reports at the time stated that the United States had planned to invade the northeast of Brazil (Plan Rubber) if Getúlio Vargas insisted on maintaining Brazil's neutrality. In 1942, following the US proposal to finance the CSN, US forces established airbases along Brazil's North-Northeast coast. The most notable of these was at Natal, near Parnamirim, in the state of Rio Grande do Norte, known as the "Trampoline of Victory" ("Trampolim da Vitória" in Portuguese). This base played a crucial role in the Allied war effort, particularly before the Allied landing in North Africa in November 1942 in Operation Torch. With the stabilization of the Italian front and the diminishing German submarine threat by late 1943, the US bases in Brazil were gradually deactivated in 1944–45. However, the US maintained a presence on Fernando de Noronha until 1960. The frequency of attacks increased markedly after Brazil severed diplomatic relations with the Axis powers on January 28, 1942. The situation escalated dramatically in August 1942, when six ships were sunk within just two days, causing over 600 casualties. This surge in attacks prompted Brazil to officially declare war on the Axis on August 22, 1942. In 1943, despite significant enhancements in patrolling and anti-submarine warfare measures through joint Brazilian and US operations, Axis submarines continued their assaults in the South Atlantic, particularly off the coasts of São Paulo and Rio de Janeiro. The majority of the targeted vessels were merchant or mixed cargo and passenger ships, primarily belonging to major shipping companies such as Lloyd Brasileiro, Lloyd Nacional, and Costeira. Smaller shipping companies and regional shipowners were also affected, as well as vessels owned by regional shipowners and seafarers, including the barge Jacira and the fishing boat Shangri-lá. Lloyd Brasileiro, the largest of these companies, suffered the greatest losses, with 21 of its ships attacked, and 19 sunk. The Brazilian Navy lost three warships in World War II: • Vital de Oliveira: An auxiliary ship torpedoed by U-861 on July 19, 1944, while en route to Rio de Janeiro after stops in the Northeast and Espírito Santo. It was the last Brazilian ship to be torpedoed in the war; • Camaquã: A corvette that capsized in a storm on July 21, 1944, resulting in the deaths of 23 crew members; To secure this area, the Allies began establishing bases in Brazil in mid-June 1941. Task Force No. 3 arrived, and the ports of Recife and Salvador were prepared for use by the US Navy. In response, the Axis powers sought to obstruct the shipment of raw materials to the United States and the United Kingdom, leading to attacks on merchant ships navigating the Atlantic. ==Pre-entry attacks==

Beginning of hostilities On March 22, 1941, the Brazilian merchant ship Taubaté was attacked by a German aircraft in the Mediterranean, off the coast of Egypt. This incurred Brazil's first wartime casualty, with gate clerk José Francisco Fraga being killed. On June 13, 1942, a German submarine intercepted the Brazilian merchant ship Siqueira Campos near the Cape Verde archipelago. The submarine fired on her, and allowed it to proceed only after conducting an inspection. Since 1940, Brazilian ships had been seized on three occasions—Siqueira Campos, Buarque, and Itapé—by British authorities. These seizures were conducted under various pretexts, primarily related to the transportation of goods and/or passengers of German origin. On January 18, 1941, the British captured the French merchant ship Mendoza in the safety zone off the Brazilian coast. This event prompted the Brazilian government to issue a formal protest to the British government. The rupture of diplomatic relations and the establishment of US bases in Brazil's Northeast positioned the country as a hostile entity from the perspective of Germany and Italy. As noted by German Ambassador Pruefer, Brazil was considered to be "in a state of latent war" with the Axis powers. Consequently, Brazilian ships began to be targeted off the US coast and in the Caribbean. The initial attacks occurred on February 15 and 18, 1942, with the merchant ships (one casualty) and Olinda (no casualties), respectively. The most notable loss was Cabedello. She disappeared in the Atlantic after leaving the US on February 14, in the peak of the submarine offensive. 54 men died, and the cause of the sinking remains unknown. It has been that she was sunk by an Italian submarine; either ; ; or . However, there is no record or evidence that she was attacked. The date of her loss is unknown. Some sources claim February 14, which is the date when she left the United States; others suggest February 25. This incident proved to be a diplomatic victory for the United States and contributed to shifting Brazilian sentiment against the Axis powers. Two days after the attack on Commander Lira, Barbarigo engaged what its commander believed to be an US battleship, reporting its sinking. In reality, the target was the cruiser , which was not hit. ==Public response==

newspaper reporting the sinking of Buarque''. In a matter of days, the number of casualties had more than quadrupled compared to the beginning of the year (607 versus 135). The publication of photographs depicting the dead on the beaches, along with accounts from survivors, made it evident to the population that the war had indeed reached Brazil. The headline of O Globo on August 18 read, "Challenge and Outrage to Brazil." By that time, the number of victims had already surpassed six hundred. This escalation sparked widespread panic, particularly among those needing to travel between states. The country lacked highways or railroads connecting its regions, civil aviation was in its early stages, and airports were virtually nonexistent. status formally established by Decree-Law 10,508, issued on August 31. Demonstrations against immigrants from Axis countries In the wake of the sinking of Brazilian ships and the resulting casualties, there was a surge of violent public demonstrations against immigrants from Axis countries, particularly Germans, Japanese, and Italians. These demonstrations included the destruction of commercial establishments owned by immigrants from Axis nations and attempts to lynch individuals suspected of having Axis affiliations. In this period, the Brazilian government imposed bans on newspapers and radio programs published in Axis languages. Additionally, it established detention facilities for foreigners suspected of anti-Brazilian activities, including those captured from German ships that had been damaged or seized off the Brazilian coast. The government was concerned about the potential for Axis powers to exploit their connections with immigrants and their Brazilian descendants, seeking to influence and mobilize them in support of their war efforts. In World War II, German and Italian immigrant groups in Brazil circulated false rumors suggesting that US submarines were responsible for the attacks on Brazilian ships, in an attempt to provoke Brazil’s entry into the war. Historians have identified these claims as part of Axis propaganda efforts, orchestrated by collaborators known as the "Fifth Columns", who sought to influence public perception and decision-making in Brazil. ==Entry into the war==

, Italy, in late September 1944 Before Brazil entered the war, its estimated military force strength ranged from 66,000 to 95,000 troops. Between 1939 and 1942, these troops were often distributed in regimental size units which were typically under-strength among the ten military districts. Of the total, over 62,000 were based in the triangle of Rio de Janeiro, Belo Horizonte, and São Paulo. The surrounding territory of each regiment was a common source of enlisted personnel. Most joined as draftees to fulfill their mandatory one-year service, and the army reported that half of them remained after their first tour. This is conceivable, despite the absence of statistics, because the troops were typically those who were unable to avoid service. Service could have been avoided by those who could afford to join the army-sponsored, semi-military shooting clubs, were enrolled in a university course, or had family ties. For both officers and troops, military life was simple, even austere. Neither had high salaries. In 1942, the equivalent of $2.80 USD per month was paid to a private, $11.40 USD to a second corporal, $30.00 USD to a first sergeant, $65.00 USD to a second lieutenant, $130.00 USD to a major, $175.00 USD to a colonel, and $250.00 USD to a major-general. In contrast, the cost of living at the time was about $1.00 a month, and the minimum pay for a worker in São Paulo or Rio de Janeiro was about $0.48 per day, or $14.40 for a thirty-day work month. This allowed the Brazilian fighters to support their families in some extent just before the country's entrance into World War II. Brazil formally entered World War II with the issuance of Decree No. 10,358 on August 31, 1942. The deployment of the FEB to the front lines began in July 1944, nearly two years after Brazil's declaration of war. The country's involvement in the war had significant repercussions, contributing to the eventual end of the Estado Novo regime. Operations began on October 31, 1944, at the Tarquinia airfield and later relocated to Pisa, closer to action, closer to the front lines. There, the group operated under the 350th Fighter Group of the United States Army Air Forces (USAAF) and was designated "Jambock". On February 10, 1945, a squadron from the 1st G.Av.Ca. targeted a large concentration of trucks, destroying 80 vehicles and three buildings. On February 20, the group assisted the FEB in capturing Monte Castello. On March 21, they achieved another success by attacking a railroad repair shop in the Po Valley, directly hitting four buildings and destroying three Savoia-Marchetti SM.79s at Galarate Field. In 1943, U-507, responsible for the August massacre the previous year, was sunk on January 13, about 100 miles off the coast of Ceará, with all 54 crew members perishing. However, other ships continued to fall victim to U-boats operating off the Brazilian coast. On February 18, Brasilóide was torpedoed by off the coast of Bahia, but no-one was killed. The following day, on March 2, the was sunk by the Italian submarine Barbarigo off Porto Seguro, resulting in the deaths of 125 people. Italian campaign ==Post-war period==

According to historian Frank McCann, Brazil was invited to join the Allied occupation forces in Austria after World War II. However, the Brazilian government was concerned that the FEB might gain political leverage from its contributions to the Allied victory, however modest. Consequently, the government decided to officially demobilize the FEB as soon as the war ended, even while the troops were still stationed in Italy. Upon their return to Brazil, former members of the FEB faced various restrictions. Non-military veterans, who were discharged upon their return, were prohibited from wearing their decorations or expeditionary uniforms in public. Professional military veterans were reassigned to frontier regions or areas far from major urban centers. Veteran associations at the ceremony commemorating the 70th anniversary of Victory Day. , Brazil.In 1988, a pension was established for surviving Brazilian World War II veterans, granting them special compensation equivalent to the pension of a second lieutenant in the army. This benefit was extended to all surviving veterans, regardless of whether they had served in the Italian or Atlantic campaigns or had been stationed in continental Brazil in the war. Between the end of the war and the introduction of this pension, veterans secured several modest victories. Notable achievements included the extension of civil service access to those who were illiterate (although this did not benefit a significant number of veterans) and the construction of a Housing Complex for ex-combatants in the Benfica neighborhood of Rio de Janeiro, which was inaugurated in the early 1960s. Many veterans who struggled to reintegrate into civilian life often became reliant on veterans' associations for support. ==See also==