Bushmeat

The term 'bushmeat' is originally an African term for wildlife species that are hunted for human consumption, In October 2000, the IUCN World Conservation Congress passed a resolution on the unsustainable commercial trade in wild meat. Affected countries were urged to recognize the increasing ramifications of the bushmeat trade, to strengthen and enforce legislation, and to develop action programmes to mitigate the consequences of the trade. Donor organisations were requested to provide funding for the implementation of such programmes. Wildlife hunting for food is important for the livelihood security of and supply of dietary protein for poor people. It can be sustainable when carried out by traditional hunter-gatherers in large landscapes for their own consumption. Due to the extent of bushmeat hunting for trade in markets, the survival of those species that are large-bodied and reproduce slowly is threatened. The term bushmeat crisis was coined in 2007 and refers to this dual threat of depleting food resources and wildlife extinctions, both entailed by the bushmeat trade. == Affected wildlife species ==

Globally, more than 1,000 animal species are estimated to be affected by hunting for bushmeat. in Cameroon in Cameroon The volume of the bushmeat trade in West and Central Africa was estimated at per year at the turn of the 21st century. In 2002, it was estimated that species weighing more than contribute of meat per year to the bushmeat extracted in the Congo Basin, based on 24 individuals. Species weighing less than were estimated to contribute , also based on 24 individuals. Bushmeat extraction in the Amazon rainforest was estimated to be much lower, at in the case of species weighing more than 10 kg and in the case of species weighing less than 10 kg, based on 3 individuals. Based on these estimates, a total of bushmeat is extracted in the Congo Basin per year. The 301 mammal species threatened by hunting for bushmeat comprise 126 primates, 65 even-toed ungulates, 27 bats, 26 diprotodont marsupials, 21 rodents, 12 carnivores and all pangolin species. Marsh mongoose (Atilax paludinosus) and long-nosed mongoose (Herpestes naso) are the most numerous small carnivores offered in rural bushmeat markets in the country. In the late 1990s, fresh and smoked bonobo (Pan paniscus) carcasses were observed in Basankusu in the Province of Équateur in the Congo Basin. The main species killed by bushmeat hunters in Tanzania's Katavi-Rukwa Region include impala (Aepyceros melampus), common duiker (Sylvicapra grimmia), warthog (Phacocherus africanus), Cape buffalo (Syncerus caffer), harnessed bushbuck, red river hog (Potamochoerus porcus) and plains zebra (Equus quagga). s killed in Madagascar for bushmeat A survey in a rural area in southwestern Madagascar revealed that bushmeat hunters target bushpig (Potamochoerus larvatus), ring-tailed lemur (Lemur catta), Verreaux's sifaka (Propithecus verreauxi), Hubbard's sportive lemur (Lepilemur hubbardorum), fat-tailed dwarf lemur (Cheirogaleus medius), common tenrec (Tenrec ecaudatus), grey mouse lemur (Microcebus murinus), reddish-gray mouse lemur (M. griseorufus), Madagascan fruit bat (Eidolon dupreanum) and Madagascan flying fox (Pteropus rufus). == Dynamics ==

Logging Logging concessions operated by companies in African forests have been closely linked to the bushmeat trade. Because they provide roads, trucks and other access to remote forests, they are the primary means for the transportation of hunters and meat between forests and urban centres. Some, including the Congolaise Industrielle du Bois (CIB) in the Republic of Congo, partnered with governments and international conservation organizations to regulate the bushmeat trade within the concessions where they operate. Numerous solutions are needed; because each country has different circumstances, traditions and laws, no one solution will work in every location. Nutrition Bushmeat can be an important source of micronutrients and macronutrients. A study of South Americans in the Tres Fronteras region found that those who consumed bushmeat were at a lower risk of anemia and chronic health conditions, as their diets included more iron, zinc, and vitamin C than those who did not eat bushmeat. Overfishing In Ghana, international illegal over-exploitation of African fishing grounds has increased demand for bushmeat. Both European Union-subsidized fleets and local commercial fleets have depleted fish stocks, leaving local people to supplement their diets with animals hunted from nature reserves. Over 30 years of data link sharp declines in both mammal populations and the biomass of 41 wildlife species with a decreased supply of fish. Consumption of fish and of bushmeat is correlated: the decline of one resource drives up the demand and price for the other. == Role in spread of diseases ==

'' as found in a Rhinoceros viper sold for human consumption Animal sources may have been the cause for infectious diseases such as tuberculosis, leprosy, cholera, smallpox, measles, influenza, and syphilis acquired by early agrarians. The emergence of HIV-1, AIDS, Ebola virus disease, and Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease are attributed to animal sources today. Outbreaks of the Ebola virus in the Congo Basin and in Gabon in the 1990s have been associated with the butchering and consumption of chimpanzees and bonobos. Anthrax can be transmitted when butchering and eating ungulates. The risk of bloodborne diseases to be transmitted is higher when butchering a carcass than when transporting, cooking and eating it. Many hunters and traders are not aware of zoonosis and the risks of disease transmissions. An interview survey in rural communities in Nigeria revealed that 55% of the respondents knew of zoonoses, but their education and cultural traditions are important drivers for hunting and eating bushmeat despite the risks involved. HIV Results of research on wild chimpanzees in Cameroon indicate that they are naturally infected with the simian foamy virus and constitute a reservoir of HIV-1, a precursor of the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) in humans. There are several distinct strains of HIV, indicating that this cross-species transfer has occurred several times. Simian immunodeficiency virus present in chimpanzees is reportedly derived from older strains of the virus present in the collared mangabey (Cercocebus torquatus) and the putty-nosed monkey. It is likely that HIV was initially transferred to humans after having come into contact with infected bushmeat. Ebola The natural reservoirs of ebolaviruses are unknown. Possible reservoirs include non-human primates, Between October 2001 and December 2003, five Ebola virus outbreaks occurred in the border area between Gabon and Republic of Congo. Autopsies of wildlife carcasses showed that chimpanzees, gorillas and bay duikers were infected with the virus. The Ebola virus has been linked to bushmeat, with some researchers hypothesizing that megabats are a primary host of at least some variants of Ebola virus. Between the first recorded outbreak in 1976 and the largest in 2014, the virus has transferred from animals to humans only 30 times, despite large numbers of bats being killed and sold each year. Bats drop partially eaten fruits and pulp, then terrestrial mammals such as gorillas and duikers feed on these fruits. This chain of events forms a possible indirect means of transmission from the natural host to animal populations. The suspected index case for the Ebola virus epidemic in West Africa in 2014 was a two-year-old boy in Meliandou in south-eastern Guinea, who played in a hollow tree harbouring a colony of Angolan free-tailed bats (Mops condylurus). Results of a study conducted during the Ebola crisis in Liberia showed that socio-economic conditions affected bushmeat consumption. During the crisis, there was a decrease in bushmeat consumption and daily meal frequency. In addition, preferences for bushmeat species stayed the same. Parasites In Cameroon, 15 primate species were examined for gastrointestinal parasites. Bushmeat primates were infected with Trichuris, Entamoeba, Ascaris, Capillaria, pinworms, Bertiella and Endolimax nana. A large proportion of Bitis vipers sold at rural bushmeat markets in the Democratic Republic of the Congo are infected by Armillifer grandis, which represent a threat to public health. ==Management==

Suggestions for reducing or halting bushmeat harvest and trade include: • increase access of consumers to affordable and reliable alternative sources of animal protein such as chicken, small livestock and farmed fish raised at family level; • devolve rights and authority over wildlife to local communities; • strengthen the management of protected areas and enforce wildlife conservation laws. As an alternative to bushmeat, captive breeding of species traditionally harvested from the wild is sometimes feasible. Captive breeding efforts must be closely monitored, as there is risk they can be used to launder and legitimize individuals captured from the wild, similar to the laundering of wild green tree pythons in Indonesia for the pet trade. == Public health and zoonotic disease ==

Bushmeat hunting, handling, and consumption are associated with an increased risk of zoonotic disease transmission. Transmission may occur through direct contact with infected animals, contaminated surfaces, or consumption of undercooked meat. Species such as bats, rodents and non-human primates are considered high-risk reservoirs for a variety pathogens. The emergence of disease is influenced by environmental and socioeconomic factors, including deforestation, habitat fragmentation, and expanding human activity in wildlife habitats. These conditions increase interactions between humans and wildlife, facilitating spillover events. == One Health perspective ==

The risks associated with bushmeat are increasingly understood within a One Health framework, which recognizes the interconnected health of humans, animals, and the environment. Wildlife exploitation, environmental change, and human behavior collectively contribute to the emergence and spread of zoonotic diseases. Bushmeat practices are influenced by food security, cultural traditions, and economic necessity, particularly in regions where alternative protein sources are limited. At the same time, these practices pose risks not only to human health but also to biodiversity and ecosystem stability. Integrated approaches to addressing bushmeat-related risks include improving access to alterantice protein sources, strengthening disease surveillance in wildlife populations, and promoting community-based education on safe handling practices. == Prevention and mitigation ==

Efforts to reduce the risks associated with bushmeat consumption include public health education, regulation of wildlife trade, and promotion of alternative protein sources. Community-based interventions that respect cultural practices while encouraging safer handling and preparation methods have been shown to be more effective than strict prohibitions. Strengthening surveillance systems for zoonotic diseases in both human and animal populations is also a key strategy. International organizations advocate for coordinated approaches that integrate public health, veterinary, and environmental expertise. == See also ==