Internal developments Although tradition attributed the "Byzantine Renaissance" to
Basil I (867–886), initiator of the Macedonian dynasty, some later scholars have credited the reforms of Basil's predecessor,
Michael III (842–867) and of the erudite
Theoktistos (died 855). The latter in particular favoured culture at the court, and, with a careful financial policy, steadily increased gold reserves. The rise of the Macedonian dynasty coincided with developments that strengthened the religious unity of the empire. The
iconoclast movement experienced a steep decline; this favoured its soft suppression by the emperors, and mitigation of the religious strife that had drained resources in previous centuries. Despite some tactical defeats, the administrative, legislative, cultural and economic situation continued to improve under Basil's successors, especially with
Romanos I Lekapenos (920–944). The
theme system reached its definitive form in this period. The
Eastern Orthodox Church establishment began to support the imperial cause, and the state limited the power of the landowning class in favour of agricultural small-holders, who made up an important part of the military. These conditions contributed to the ability of the emperors to wage war against the
Arabs.
Wars against the Muslims By 867, the empire had stabilized its position in both the east and the west, while the success of its defensive military structure had enabled the emperors to begin planning wars of reconquest in the east. The process of reconquest began with variable fortunes. The temporary reconquest of
Crete (843) was followed by a crushing Byzantine defeat on the
Bosporus, while the emperors were unable to prevent the ongoing Muslim conquest of
Sicily (827–902). Using present-day
Tunisia as their launching pad, the Muslims conquered
Palermo in 831,
Messina in 842,
Enna in 859,
Syracuse in 878,
Catania in 900 and the final Greek stronghold, the fortress of
Taormina, in 902. These drawbacks were later counterbalanced by a victorious expedition against
Damietta in
Egypt (853), the defeat of the Emir of
Melitene (863), the confirmation of the imperial authority over
Dalmatia (867) and Basil I's offensives towards the
Euphrates (870s). The threat from the
Arab Muslims was meanwhile reduced by inner struggles and by the rise of the
Turks in the east. Muslims received assistance however from the
Paulician sect, which had found a large following in the eastern provinces of the Empire and, facing persecution under the Byzantines, often fought under the Arab flag. It took several campaigns to subdue the Paulicians, who were eventually defeated by Basil I. and captured. According to medieval legends, 99 out of every 100 Bulgarian soldiers were blinded and the hundredth remaining man was left with one eye so as to lead his compatriots home; reportedly when the aging Tsar
Samuil of Bulgaria saw the remains of his once formidable army, he died of a heart attack. In 1018 Bulgaria surrendered and became part of the Byzantine Empire thus restoring the
Danube frontier, which had not been held since the days of Heraclius. and other historical documents. Constantinople at the same time constantly pitted Kievan Rus', Bulgaria, and Poland against each other. The Byzantine influence on Kievan Rus' cannot be overstated. Byzantine-style writing became a standard for the adopted from
Bulgaria Cyrillic alphabet, Byzantine architecture dominated in Kiev, and as the main trading partner the Byzantine Empire played a critical role in the establishment, rise, and fall of Kievan Rus'.
Triumph ta'' of the Byzantine Empire at the death of Basil II in 1025. The Byzantine Empire now stretched to
Armenia in the east, to
Calabria in
Southern Italy in the west. Many successes had been achieved, ranging from the conquest of
Bulgaria, to the annexation of parts of
Georgia and Armenia, to the total annihilation of an invading force of Egyptians outside
Antioch. Yet even these victories were not enough; Basil considered the continued Arab occupation of
Sicily to be an outrage. Accordingly, he planned to reconquer the island, which had belonged to the empire for over three hundred years (c. 535 – c. 902). However, his death in 1025 put an end to the project. The 11th century was also momentous for its religious events. In 1054, relations between Greek and Slavic-speaking Eastern and Latin-speaking Western Christian traditions reached a terminal crisis. Although there was a formal declaration of institutional separation, on July 16, when three papal legates entered the
Hagia Sophia during
Divine Liturgy on a Saturday afternoon and placed a
bull of
ex-communication on the altar, the so-called
Great Schism was a culmination of centuries of gradual separation. Although the schism was brought about by doctrinal disputes (in particular, Eastern refusal to accept the Western Church doctrine of the
filioque, or double procession of the
Holy Spirit), disputes over administration and political issues had simmered for centuries. The formal separation of the
Eastern Orthodox Church and the Western
Catholic Church would have wide-ranging consequences for the future of
Europe and Christianity. == Administration ==