Cayley–Dickson construction

The Cayley–Dickson construction is due to Leonard Dickson in 1919 showing how the octonions can be constructed as a two-dimensional algebra over quaternions. In fact, starting with a field F, the construction yields a sequence of F-algebras of dimension 2n. For n = 2 it is an associative algebra called a quaternion algebra, and for n = 3 it is an alternative algebra called an octonion algebra. These instances n = 1, 2 and 3 produce composition algebras as shown below. The case n = 1 starts with elements (a, b) in F × F and defines the conjugate (a, b)* to be (a*, –b) where a* = a in case n = 1, and subsequently determined by the formula. The essence of the F-algebra lies in the definition of the product of two elements (a, b) and (c, d): :(a,b) \times (c,d) = (ac - d^*b, da + bc^*). Proposition 1: For z = (a,b) and w = (c,d), the conjugate of the product is w^*z^* = (zw)^*. :proof: (c^*,-d)(a^*,-b) = (c^*a^* + b^*(-d), -bc^*-da) = (zw)^*. Proposition 2: If the F-algebra is associative and N(z) = zz^*,then N(zw) = N(z)N(w). :proof: N(zw) = (ac-d^*b, da+bc^*)(c^*a^*-b^*d, -da -bc^*) = (aa^* + bb^*)(cc^* + dd^*) + terms that cancel by the associative property. ==Stages in construction of real algebras==

Details of the construction of the classical real algebras are as follows: Complex numbers as ordered pairs The complex numbers can be written as ordered pairs of real numbers and , with the addition operator being component-wise and with multiplication defined by : (a, b) (c, d) = (a c - b d, a d + b c).\, A complex number whose second component is zero is associated with a real number: the complex number is associated with the real number . The complex conjugate of is given by : (a, b)^* = (a^*, -b) = (a, -b) since is a real number and is its own conjugate. The conjugate has the property that : (a, b)^* (a, b) = (a a + b b, a b - b a) = \left(a^2 + b^2, 0\right),\, which is a non-negative real number. In this way, conjugation defines a norm, making the complex numbers a normed vector space over the real numbers: the norm of a complex number  is : |z| = \left(z^* z\right)^\frac12.\, Furthermore, for any non-zero complex number , conjugation gives a multiplicative inverse, : z^{-1} = \frac{z^*}{|z|^2}. As a complex number consists of two independent real numbers, they form a two-dimensional vector space over the real numbers. Besides being of higher dimension, the complex numbers can be said to lack one algebraic property of the real numbers: a real number is its own conjugate. Quaternions File:Cayley_Q8_multiplication_graph.svg|thumb|link=|Cayley Q8 graph of quaternion multiplication showing cycles of multiplication of i (red), j (green) and k (blue). In [ the SVG file,] hover over or click a path to highlight it. The next step in the construction is to generalize the multiplication and conjugation operations. Form ordered pairs of complex numbers and , with multiplication defined by : (a, b) (c, d) = (a c - d^* b, d a + b c^*).\, Slight variations on this formula are possible; the resulting constructions will yield structures identical up to the signs of bases. The order of the factors seems odd now, but will be important in the next step. Define the conjugate of by : (a, b)^* = (a^*, -b).\, These operators are direct extensions of their complex analogs: if and are taken from the real subset of complex numbers, the appearance of the conjugate in the formulas has no effect, so the operators are the same as those for the complex numbers. The product of a nonzero element with its conjugate is a non-negative real number: : \begin{align} (a, b)^* (a, b) &= (a^*, -b) (a, b) \\ &= (a^* a + b^* b, b a^* - b a^*) \\ &= \left(|a|^2 + |b|^2, 0 \right).\, \end{align} As before, the conjugate thus yields a norm and an inverse for any such ordered pair. So in the sense we explained above, these pairs constitute an algebra something like the real numbers. They are the quaternions, named by Hamilton in 1843. As a quaternion consists of two independent complex numbers, they form a four-dimensional vector space over the real numbers. The multiplication of quaternions is not quite like the multiplication of real numbers, though; it is not commutative – that is, if and are quaternions, it is not always true that . Octonions All the steps to create further algebras are the same from octonions onwards. This time, form ordered pairs of quaternions and , with multiplication and conjugation defined exactly as for the quaternions: : (p, q) (r, s) = (p r - s^* q, s p + q r^*).\, Note, however, that because the quaternions are not commutative, the order of the factors in the multiplication formula becomes important—if the last factor in the multiplication formula were rather than , the formula for multiplication of an element by its conjugate would not yield a real number. For exactly the same reasons as before, the conjugation operator yields a norm and a multiplicative inverse of any nonzero element. This algebra was discovered by John T. Graves in 1843, and is called the octonions or the "Cayley numbers". As an octonion consists of two independent quaternions, they form an eight-dimensional vector space over the real numbers. The multiplication of octonions is even stranger than that of quaternions; besides being non-commutative, it is not associative – that is, if , , and are octonions, it is not always true that . For the reason of this non-associativity, octonions have no matrix representation. Sedenions The algebra immediately following the octonions is called the sedenions. It retains the algebraic property of power associativity, meaning that if is a sedenion, , but loses the property of being an alternative algebra and hence cannot be a composition algebra. It is also at this point that the algebras formed by the Cayley-Dickson construction begin to have nontrivial zero divisors, in that this and every further algebra created by the construction will have pairs of nonzero values (for example,⁠ {{tmath|(e_3 + e_{10})}} and ⁠{{tmath|(e_6 - e_{15})}}) which when multiplied give 0. Trigintaduonions The algebra immediately following the sedenions is the trigintaduonions, which form a 32-dimensional algebra over the real numbers and can be represented by blackboard bold \mathbb T. Further algebras The Cayley–Dickson construction can be carried on ad infinitum, at each step producing a power-associative algebra whose dimension is double that of the algebra of the preceding step. These include the 64-dimensional sexagintaquatronions (or 64-nions), the 128-dimensional centumduodetrigintanions (or 128-nions), the 256-dimensional ducentiquinquagintasexions (or 256-nions), and ad infinitum. All the algebras generated in this way over a field are quadratic: that is, each element satisfies a quadratic equation with coefficients from the field. == Modified Cayley–Dickson construction ==

The Cayley–Dickson construction, starting from the real numbers \mathbb R, generates the composition algebras \mathbb C (the complex numbers), \mathbb H (the quaternions), and \mathbb O (the octonions). There are also composition algebras whose norm is an isotropic quadratic form, which are obtained through a slight modification, by replacing the minus sign in the definition of the product of ordered pairs with a plus sign, as follows: (a, b) (c, d) = (a c + d^* b, d a + b c^*). When this modified construction is applied to \mathbb R, one obtains the split-complex numbers, which are ring-isomorphic to the direct product \mathbb R \times \mathbb R; following that, one obtains the split-quaternions, an associative algebra isomorphic to that of the 2 × 2 real matrices; and the split-octonions, which are isomorphic to . Applying the original Cayley–Dickson construction to the split-complexes also results in the split-quaternions and then the split-octonions. == General Cayley–Dickson construction ==

gave a slight generalization, defining the product and involution on for an algebra with involution (with ) to be : \begin{align} (p, q) (r, s) &= (p r - \gamma s^* q, s p + q r^*)\, \\ (p, q)^* &= (p^*, -q)\, \end{align} for an additive map that commutes with and left and right multiplication by any element. (Over the reals all choices of are equivalent to −1, 0 or 1.) In this construction, is an algebra with involution, meaning: • is an abelian group under • has a product that is left and right distributive over • has an involution , with , , . The algebra produced by the Cayley–Dickson construction is also an algebra with involution. inherits properties from unchanged as follows. • If has an identity , then has an identity . • If has the property that , associate and commute with all elements, then so does . This property implies that any element generates a commutative associative *-algebra, so in particular the algebra is power associative. Other properties of only induce weaker properties of : • If is commutative and has trivial involution, then is commutative. • If is commutative and associative then is associative. • If is associative and , associate and commute with everything, then is an alternative algebra. == Notes ==