The question of the use of spiritual gifts has been a theme throughout the
history of Christianity. There was discussion of the prevalence of miracles and spiritual gifts in the Church, and many references can be found in the writings of the
Church Fathers and others, that are cited by Christians on each side of this debate.
Early Christianity (100 - 500) •
Justin Martyr (d.165) in his
Dialogue with Trypho comments, 'For the prophetical gifts remain with us, even to the present time.' •
Irenaeus (d.202) was a pupil of
Polycarp, who was a disciple of the apostle John. He wrote in his book
Against Heresies, Book V, vi.: "In like manner do we also hear many brethren in the church who possess prophetic gifts, and who through the Spirit speak all kinds of languages, and bring to light, for the general benefit, the hidden things of men and declare the mysteries of God, who also the apostles term spiritual". • : "Those who are in truth His disciples, receiving grace from Him, do in His name perform [miracles], so as to promote the welfare of other men, according to the gift which each one has received from Him. For some do certainly and truly drive out devils, so that those who have thus been cleansed from evil spirits frequently both believe [in Christ], and join themselves to the Church. Others have foreknowledge of things to come: they see visions, and utter prophetic expressions. Others still, heal the sick by laying their hands upon them, and they are made whole. Yea, moreover, as I have said, the dead even have been raised up, and remained among us for many years…. The name of our Lord Jesus Christ even now confers benefits [upon men], and cures thoroughly and effectively all who anywhere believe on Him". •
Origen (AD 185–253). He professed to have been an eye-witness to many instances of exorcism, healing, and prophecy, although he refused to record the details, lest he should rouse the laughter and scorn of the unbeliever. •
Chrysostom (d.407) – writing on 1 Corinthians and the gift of tongues said, "This whole place is very obscure; but the obscurity is produced by our ignorance of the facts referred to and by their cessation, being such as then used to occur but now no longer take place. And why do they not happen now? Why look now, the cause too of the obscurity hath produced us again another question: namely, why did they then happen, and now do so no more?". (AD 347–407) •
Augustine (d.430) – In a homily on the 1st Epistle of John, Augustine commented that speaking in tongues was a miracle suitable for the early church, but that it was no longer evident in his own time. In chapters 8 and 9 of Book XXII of his
City of God, written circa AD 415, Augustine noted that miracles in his day were not as spectacular or noteworthy as those at the dawn of Christianity, but that they continued to take place.
Reformation During the
Reformation the Catholic church used accounts of miracles in the Catholic church as a polemic against the
Reformed churches.
John Calvin wrote in a preface to his
Institutes of the Christian Religion that the primary purpose of miracles was to confirm divine revelation and affirm the Church's doctrine. It was a proof that the Apostolic preaching was true. Because the Reformation reaffirmed the original Apostolic preaching, no additional miracles should be expected – and that was likewise true of all Apostolic churches, which led Calvin to argue that the miracles of the Catholic church were necessarily false. This was the first formulation of a cessationist argument: that the miracles and healings of the church should not be expected, because divine revelation had already been confirmed and the foundation laid.
18th - 21st centuries The rise of
Methodism in the 18th century emphasised "pursuing the ordinary work of the Spirit" and followers "experienced all types of charisms and spiritual manifestations." Wesleyan-Arminian theology affirms the doctrine of the
Witness of the Spirit, which assures the believer of his faith. In the 1830s–1850s, the
Shakers, an offshoot of the
Quakers, had a spiritual revival in the United States known as the
Era of Manifestations. This period involved the expression of spiritual gifts, such as visions, revelation and ecstatic experiences. Prior to this revival, Quakers believed that everyone had access to the
Inward light, which was often connected to the gifts and
Fruit of the Holy Spirit, such as the "Word of Wisdom." Personal use of the Inward light was further emphasized by American Quaker minister
Elias Hicks in the 1840s and lead to the "Hicksite" (Liberal) branch of Quakerism.
20th - 21st centuries B.B. Warfield was a major proponent of Cessationism in the early 20th century. Warfield expounded his views on cessationism particularly in his 1918 work,
Counterfeit Miracles. His view was that the goal of the
charismata was to accredit true doctrine and its bearers, and that miracles were limited to the Biblical era. Miracles are seen as proving doctrine and once the canon was sealed and the last apostles died, they were not needed. Warfield was highly influenced by the work of John Calvin. A second major influence to Warfield was the Enlightenment epistemology of
Scottish Common Sense philosophy. Warfield's Calvinist roots objected to Roman Catholicism and Enlightenment-era Scottish Common Sense philosophy realism that challenged post-Biblical ecclesiastical miracles. 1. Miracles are of such a nature and performed in such a manner as would necessarily inject suspicion of fraud and delusion. 2. The cures and beneficial effect of miracles were either false, imaginary, or accidental. 3. Miracles tend to confirm the idlest of all errors and superstitions. 4. The integrity of witnesses to miracles is either highly questionable or their credulity renders them unworthy of any credit. 5. Some miracles are so trifling as to excite nothing but contempt. Warfield used a two-leg approach in his defense of cessationism in which he attempted to perform a critical analysis based on a 'historical leg' and a 'scriptural leg'. In his fight against liberals who rationalised and de-mythologised or allegorised New Testament miracles, Warfield had a faith-oriented, super-naturalistic and subjective position. However, critics have argued that Warfield took a common-sense, naturalistic, objective and scientific approach to post-Biblical miracles. Randy Clark said that in Warfield's attempt to protect Christian orthodoxy against the errors of liberalism and rationalism, his own biases blinded him from the reality of the New Covenant Spirit in the post-Biblical era. Against this cessationist view,
Karl Barth, the main exponent of what came to be known as
neo-orthodoxy within non-fundamentalist Protestantism, declared, "It is assumed that the church at all times needs the witness of apostles and prophets; further, Paul does not anticipate that the inspired and enthusiastic ministry was to be absorbed by and disappear into offices and officers". the author contends for the continuation position and argues that Warfield's defense of cessationism was to defend fundamentalism and Calvinism against the growing theological liberalism of the late 19th century. Ruthven agreed with Warfield's premise that the function of the charismata determines its duration based on the emphasis of Scripture. Scripture explicitly states, Ruthven opined, that the function of the charismata is not for the accreditation of apostles and true doctrine, but for the edification, exhortation, encouragement and equipping of all believers for further service. Fundamental to the charismatic movement that arose in historic Christian Churches is the experience of
baptism with the Holy Spirit and the use of
spiritual gifts (
charismata). ==Problems of terminology==