The balance of power maintained between the Cham and the Vietnamese for more than 500 years came to an end with the destruction of the Champa kingdom. The Vietnamese enslaved several thousand Chams and forced Chams to assimilate into Vietnamese culture. The number included 50 members of the royal family. In 1509, Thánh Tông's grandson,
Lê Uy Mục, carried out a massacre against remaining Cham royal members and slaves in the neighbourhood of the capital
Hanoi. In autumn of that year, the king also issued execution orders for all remaining Cham prisoners who had been captured in the 1471 war. A Cham general, Bố Trì Trì, fled and established himself as the ruler of the
rump state of
Panduranga (modern
Phan Rang), more than 250 kilometers to the south. That state lasted until 1832, when emperor
Minh Mạng initiated the final conquest of the remnants of Champa. Trì Trì and two others, a ruler in the
Central Highlands (the region of
Kon Tum and
Pleiku) and a ruler on the coast immediately to the south of
Bình Định (in the modern provinces of
Phú Yên and
Khánh Hòa), subsequently submitted to Thánh Tông as vassals. In the conquered land, king Thánh Tông established Quảng Nam as Đại Việt's 13th province, with 42 military colonies (
Đồn điền), setting up administration, customary, regulations,... according to Vietnamese Confucian establishment. Đỗ Tử Quy was appointed as governor of Quảng Nam. Cham representatives told the
Ming Empire that Annam destroyed their country. The Chinese
Ming Dynasty records evidence the extent of the Vietnamese destruction wrought on Champa. The Chams informed the Ming that they continued to fight against the Vietnamese occupation of their land, which had been turned into the 13th province of Đại Việt. In 1474, Bố Trì Trì rebelled against the Vietnamese by mounting guerilla warfare in the western mountainous jungles with Trà Toàn's son Trà Toại. Thánh Tông sent
Lê Niệm and 30,000 soldiers to Panduranga, where they put down the Cham revolt, captured Trà Toại and imprisoned him in a dungeon at Hanoi. Cham resistance continued in the mountains and valleys in the south. The Ming annals recorded in 1485 that "Champa is a distant and dangerous place, and Annam is still employing troops there." The
Vietnamese ceramics trade was severely affected due to the impact suffered by the Cham merchants after the invasion. The Ming scholar Wu Pu (吳樸) recommended that to help stop the Vietnamese, Ming should help resuscitate the Champa Kingdom. The Ming dynasty however did not follow his recommendation, due to internal security concerns. A massive wave of Cham emigration radiated out across Southeast Asia. In Cambodia, Cham refugees were welcomed, but the sources do not describe how they arrived in Cambodia and where they settled. In Thailand, there are records of Cham presence since the
Ayudhaya period. In the
Indonesian archipelago, the
Sejarah Melayu (Malay Annals) relates that after the collapse of Vijaya in 1471, two Cham princes named
Indera Berma Shah and
Shah Palembang sought asylum in
Melaka and
Aceh. Shortly after his conversion to Islam, Indera Berma Shah was appointed minister at the court of Sultan
Mansur Shah. The
Sejarah Melayu also mentions Cham presence in
Pahang and
Kelantan, where the
Kampung Laut Mosque is said to have been built by Champa sailors on their way to
Java. Some refugees entered the territory of Sulu [which included Taguima/Basilan]. The Ming Empire sent a censor, Ch'en Chun, to Champa in 1474 to install the Champa King, but his entry was blocked by Vietnamese soldiers who had taken over Champa. He proceeded to Malacca instead and its ruler sent back tribute to the
Ming dynasty. Malacca sent envoys again in 1481 to inform the Ming that, while going back to Malacca in 1469 from a trip to China, the Vietnamese attacked them, castrating the young and enslaving them. The Malaccans reported that Đại Việt was in control of Champa and sought to conquer Malacca, but the Malaccans did not fight back, due to a lack of permission from the Ming to engage in war. The Ming Emperor scolded them, ordering the Malaccans to strike back with violent force if the Vietnamese attacked. However, as Đại Việt's power declined during the sixteenth century, the rise of the
Burmese Empire under
Tabinshweti and
Bayinnaung to become the major force in mainland Southeast Asia had put an end to Vietnamese expansion. More ethnic Vietnamese had moved south and settled on conquered Cham lands. Only the small Cham kingdom of Panduranga remained in the south. Having suffered a large number of population loss in a short period of time–though accurate figures are impossible to determine for lack of usable statistics–the Cham would never regain a significant power position until being fully annexed in the 19th century.
Subsequent Islamization of the Chams It is generally believed that the Vietnamese conquest of Champa in 1471 had directly contributed to the eventual conversion to
Islam by the majority of Cham population. Even before the Vietnamese conquest, Islam had already started to make ground in Champa by the 10th century, but only by this war that Islam finally hastily established the foothold among the Cham population; it was believed that in order to resist the increasingly aggressive Confucian-Buddhist Vietnamese expansion, conversion to Islam made it an important component of the Cham identity and to seek protection from the Islamic World (dar al-Islam) against Vietnamese aggression. ==References==