Chera Perumals of Makotai

An earlier version of conventional Kerala historiography held the belief that the medieval Chera state in Kerala was a highly centralized imperial monarchy (following a "unitary or imperial state model", emphasizing centralized administration). The state was also erroneously referred to as the "Second/Later Chera Empire" or the "Kulasekhara Empire". This perspective describes "a fragmented array of local chiefdoms... held in check by a loose Tamil hegemony". Furthermore, some recently discovered inscriptions remained unreported and undeciphered, while others were published in a form that was far from satisfactory. A notable recent effort to catalogue these inscriptions was the publication of South Indian Inscriptions (SII), Volume 43, edited by epigraphist M. R. Raghava Varier and published by the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) in 2021. ==History==

(northern entrance gateway) (10th-11th centuries) The medieval Chera rulers of Kerala, based at the port of Mahodayapuram (identified with present-day Kodungallur) on the Malabar Coast, were perhaps descendants of the legendary Cheras who flourished in pre-Pallava (early historic) south India. The Chera Perumal dynasty of Mahodayapuram, in the early 9th century CE, notably introduced "kingship" as a form of rule in Kerala, marking a major departure from the early historic system of clan-based social and political structures. The Chera Perumal kingdom had alternating friendly and hostile relations with the neighboring Cholas and the Pandyas. Shankaracharya, the founder of the Vedanta advaita school of philosophy, is also traced to 8th-century Kerala. The earliest attestation of Malayalam language as an inscriptional variety is also tentatively dated to the Chera Perumal period or shortly thereafter in Kerala. In the early 12th century, the medieval Chera kingdom of Kerala dissolved into several local powers. The gradual transformation of land relations, among other factors, played a crucial role in the collapse of the Chera state.''' In other parts of Kerala, the chieftains of Kolathunad, and the future rulers of Kozhikode (Calicut) and Kochi (Cochin) succeeded the Chera Perumals. == Administration ==

(plate I, side I).|263x263px , with legend "Uttama Chola", showing the Chera emblem (Bow, left to the Sitting Tiger).The medieval Chera state in Kerala featured a range of administrative organs that reflected its structure. The "Koyil Adhikarikal", or "Al/Ala Koyil", was the Chera royal prince appointed to individual chiefdoms, responsible for collecting regular dues — such as the and arantai — on behalf of the Chera Perumal at Mahodayapuram. The managers of the four prominent Nambudiri-Brahmin temples around Kodungallur, collectively known as the "Nalu Thali", likely functioned as the Chera Perumal's permanent council or ministers. The Ayiram ("The Thousand") served as the Chera Perumal's personal guard, composed of a thousand Nair warriors who acted as the king’s "Companions of Honour" and were also tasked with managing and protecting the Kodungallur Bhagavathy Temple. The Padai-nayakar (or nayakan or Padai-nair) was the commander of the armed militia, either for the kingdom as a whole or for individual chiefdoms. Each chiefdom maintained its own militia known as The Hundred (Nutruvar), an armed contingent whose size was often indicated by the number of households within the nadu that could contribute fighters. The Nizhal ("The Shadow") formed the personal protection guard of the udaiyavar chiefs, serving them as loyal "Companions of Honour". Supporting the chiefs further was the Prakrithi, a body of non-Brahmin notables who assisted in administration. Lastly, the Adhikarar were temple or royal functionaries responsible for local administration, including the collection of dues and arbitration of disputes. == Major chieftaincies ==

Through the analysis of medieval Kerala inscriptions from the Chera Perumal period, scholars have substantiated the existence of several chieftaincies or chiefdoms (the "nadus"). From north to south, they are as follows: Kolla-desam [or Kolathu-nadu?] or Mushika country, Purakizha-nadu, Kurumporai-nadu, Erala-nadu, Valluva-nadu,), Vempala-nadu, Munji-nadu, Nanruzhai-nadu, Kolathu-nadu (in northern Kerala) came under the influence of the Chera Perumals only during the 11th century CE, while Venadu (in southern Kerala) was likely developed under their influence in the early 9th century CE. The Chera Perumal held direct (sovereign) authority over the country extending from the Palakkad Gap to Vembanad Lake, including the port of Mahodayapuram-Kodungallur in the Periyar Valley. Within this territory, the were present as militaristic or revenue units, with members of martial families serving the Chera Perumal king in appointed roles known as the Udayaivar. == Chera Perumal genealogy ==

, Thanjavur|262x262px Abhisekanama (regnal title) An earlier version of conventional Kerala historiography believed that all the rulers of the medieval Chera dynasty of Kerala used the specific abhisekanama (regnal name) "Kulasekhara". Hence, the ruling lineage was referred to as the "Kulasekhara dynasty". These included "Cheramanar" or "Cheraman", "Keralaraja", "Cheran", and "Cheralan". Some rulers were also referred to by the titles "Kothai/Kotha" or "Kothan", as well as "Udayan/Uthiyan". Chera Perumal genealogy Originally revised by M. G. S. Narayanan (1972) from Elamkulam P. N. Kunjan Pillai (1963) Recent corrections (2014 and revised in 2020) on Narayanan by Manu V. Devadevan (edited by Kesavan Veluthat) are also employed. == Chera Perumal epigraphic records ==