Under the
Estado Novo regime of
António de Oliveira Salazar, chibalo was used in Mozambique to grow
cotton for Portugal, build roads, and serve Portuguese settlers. The system was enforced by physical and sexual violence against black Africans The
Niassa Company is an example of the kind of companies that could flourish since they had access to an unpaid labour force. Foreign
investment in the Portuguese overseas provinces was outlawed so that Portugal would benefit directly. Entire families had to work in the cotton fields, replacing food production, leading to hunger and malnourishment. Chibalo outlasted slavery in the
Portuguese Empire. Indigenous peoples in Mozambique, however, resisted chibalo throughout the period of Portuguese domination into the
independence struggle. ==See also==