Cholula (Mesoamerican site)

Cholula is located in the Puebla-Tlaxcala Valley of the central Mexican highlands. It is surrounded to the west by the snow-covered peaks Popocatepetl and Iztaccihuatl, and Malinche to the north. The summer rainy season and the melted snow in winter provide a great environment for irrigation agriculture. There is also a confluence of several perennial streams with the Atoyac River that creates a wetland to the north and east of the urban center. This has resulted in abundant and excellent agriculture during the colonial period, which led to Cholula being known as the richest agricultural region in central Mexico. Maize is the major crop cultivated but they also harvested maguey, chiles, and cochineal for dye. The soil is rich in clay, which made pottery and brick-making an important part of their economy. Textiles and elaborate decorative capes were also popular. ==History==

Cholula grew from a very small village to a regional center between 600 BCE and 700 CE. During this period, Cholula was a major center contemporaneous with Teotihuacan and seems to have avoided, at least partially, that city's fate of violent destruction at the end of the Mesoamerican Classic period. The earliest occupation dates back to the Early Formative period. In the 1970s, Mountjoy discovered a waterlogged deposit dating to the late Middle Formative period near the ancient lakeshore. The earliest construction evidence at Cholula dates to the Late Formative period. The initial stages of the Great Pyramid probably date to the Terminal Formative Period and show stylistic resemblance to early Teotihuacan. Estimates suggest that during the Formative period, the site extended for about 2 square kilometers, with a population of five to ten thousand. The Classical period is known for the construction of the Great Pyramid. Stages 3 and 4 were built during this period, as well as many other mounds of the urban zone, like Cerro Cocoyo, Edificio Rojo, San Miguelito, and Cerro Guadalupe. The central ceremonial precinct included the Great Pyramid, a big plaza to the west, and the Cerro Cocoyo as the westmost pyramid of the plaza group. Classical period Cholula most likely covered around 5 square kilometers, and had an estimated population of fifteen to twenty thousand individuals. The Olmeca-Xicallanca also established a dual rulership consisting of the Aquiach (elder of the above) and Tlalchiach (elder of the ground), which would persist until the Spanish conquest. In CE 1200, ethnic Tolteca-Chichimeca conquered Cholula. At this point, the Patio of the Altars was destroyed and the ceremonial center (with the "new" Pyramid of Quetzalcoatl) was moved to the present zócalo (main plaza) of Cholula. Polychrome pottery from this phase used distinctive design configurations but was derived from earlier styles. The "laca" pottery also dates to this period. During this entire period, Cholula remained a regional center of importance, in both religion (through the cult of Quetzalcoatl) and commerce. As a consequence, at the time of the fall of the Aztec Triple Alliance, Aztec princes were still formally anointed by a Cholulan priest. Sometime between 1200 and 1517, Cholula was conquered by the neighboring city-state of Tlaxcala, therefore comprising one of three cities within the emergent Tlaxcala Triple Alliance. In 1517, Cholula seceded from the Tlaxcala Triple Alliance, opting to join the far more powerful Aztec equivalent. In 1519, the Tlaxcalans led Cortés and his troops to Cholula to facilitate an act of retribution against the city for its betrayal. Cholula, which was south of Tlaxcala and farther southeast of Tenochtitlan, was out of the way to the Aztec capital, so its visit was a Tlaxcalan machination, not a Spanish one. After a Cholulan welcoming ceremony made up of speeches and feasts, conquistador Bernal Diaz accounts that the Spanish soon became suspicious of the Cholulans' true intentions. According to Diaz, the Spanish were taken aback by Cholula's supposed trenches and dugouts with anti-cavalry spikes, alongside conspicuous piles of rocks found on Cholulan rooftops. Modern-day revisionist historians such as Matthew Restall agree that the Tlaxcalans, successfully executing a plan to use the Spanish as a tool of political advancement, persuaded Cortés into believing that the Cholulans were conspiring against him. Diaz alleges that, after feigning a Spanish departure in the city's central plaza to attract a large crowd of onlookers, Cortés suddenly announced that the Cholulans had committed treason, and thus had to be put to the sword. Blocking the exits of Cholula's great plaza, the conquistadors proceeded to massacre the unarmed crowd, purportedly leaving no survivors. Simultaneously, Tlaxcala warriors who had previously been stationed outside of Cholula swiftly rushed through the city gates to sack it. Over the next four days, both Spaniards and Tlaxcalans alike raped, killed, pillaged, and burned in the city of Cholula, during which the Great Pyramid of Cholula was largely reduced to an earthy hill. No conquistadors died in the process, and Cholula consequently re-entered the Tlaxcala Triple Alliance as its previous leadership was executed. Along with the rest of Tlaxcala territory, Cholula was peacefully transferred to Spanish hands after the Spanish-Aztec War's conclusion. A few years later, Cortés vowed that the city would be rebuilt with a Christian church to replace each of the old pagan temples; fewer than 50 new churches were actually built, but the Spanish colonial churches are unusually numerous for a city of its size. There is a common saying in Cholula that there is a church for every day of the year. During the Spanish colonial period, Cholula was overtaken in importance by the nearby newly-founded Spanish city of Puebla. ==Great Pyramid of Cholula==

The Great Pyramid of Cholula, Tlachihualtepetl, is the largest prehispanic structure in the world in terms of volume. Stage one measured about on the side and was high. The top platform measured about square and featured wall remains of the temple precinct. The second pyramid, which was built over the first one, no longer resembles Teotihuacan architectural style. Instead it is a pyramid with stairs covering all four sides, so the top could be approached from every direction. It measures 590 ft (180 m) on a side. During the Early Postclassic period, the pyramid was expanded to its final form. It covered 16 hectares (400 meters on the side) and reached a height of 66 meters. The orientation of the Great Pyramid, and the whole site’s urban grid, is about 26 degrees north of west, a deviation from Teotihuacan’s orientation. This orientation is aligned with the summer solstice, and it may relate to the worship of a solar deity related to the Mixtec 7 Flower, or Aztec Tonacatecuhtli. Today Cholula is still one of the most important pilgrimage destinations in Mexico. Around 350,000 people attend the annual festival centered at the top of the Great Pyramid. The Great Pyramid of Cholula is still used because the Spanish built a church atop it, a symbol of the religious conquest of the Aztec Empire. That makes it not just the largest pyramid in the world but also the oldest continuously occupied building in North America. In the 20th century, the temple was tunnelled by archaeologists. Four major and nine minor construction stages were revealed. These tunnels remain open to visitors and are stable because of the adobe bricks that were used to build the pyramid. ==Art==

The origins of the Mixteca-Puebla stylistic tradition appeared and reflected the Gulf Coast influences. Polychrome pottery was already common by CE 1000, and also resembles Gulf Coast styles. The figurines usually represent deities like in many other Mesoamerican sites, but their shape is unique. They are façades of about 19 cm high. The front of the figurines are a fairly complex face and headdress set upon a plain trapezoidal pedestal. The back is very roughly finished and has a loop handle that has been seen to be either horizontal, vertical or diagonal to the face, although horizontal handles are the most common ones. Some of them are plain but others have traces of a thin coat of stucco painted in yellow, red, back, brown, green, and pink. In Cholula figurines mostly represent the god Tlaloc. There have been at least six molds found that were used to produce Tlaloc figurines in the collection from the campus of the Universidad de las Américas and each one exhibits differences in size, proportion, and the detailed elements of its portrait. ==Notes==