The
Fourth Crusade, authorized by
Innocent III in 1202, intended to retake the
Holy Land but was soon subverted by Venetians who used the forces to sack the Christian city of
Zara. Eventually the crusaders arrived in Constantinople, but rather than proceed to the Holy Land the crusaders instead sacked Constantinople and other parts of Asia Minor effectively establishing the
Latin Empire of Constantinople in Greece and Asia Minor. This was effectively the last crusade sponsored by the papacy; later crusades were sponsored by individuals. Thus, though Jerusalem was held for nearly a century and other strongholds in the
Near East remained in Christian possession much longer, the crusades in the Holy Land ultimately failed to establish permanent Christian kingdoms.
Crusades against Christians in the East by Roman Catholic crusaders was not exclusive to the
Mediterranean though (see also the
Northern Crusades and the
Battle of the Ice). The sacking of
Constantinople and the
Church of Holy Wisdom and establishment of the
Latin Empire as a seeming attempt to supplant the Orthodox
Byzantine Empire in 1204 is viewed with some rancour to the present day. Many in the East saw the actions of the West as a prime determining factor in the weakening of Byzantium. This led to the empire's eventual conquest and fall to Islam. In 2004,
Pope John Paul II extended a formal apology for the sacking of Constantinople in 1204; the apology was formally accepted by
Patriarch Bartholomew of Constantinople. Many things that were stolen during this time: holy
relics, riches, and many other items, are still held in various Western European cities, particularly
Venice. The crusades in southern
Spain, southern
Italy, and
Sicily eventually led to the demise of Islamic power in the regions; the
Teutonic Knights expanded Christian domains in
Eastern Europe; and the much less frequent crusades within Christendom, such as the
Albigensian Crusade, achieved their goal of maintaining doctrinal unity.
Fourth Crusade, 1202–1204 The
Fourth Crusade was initiated in 1202 by
Pope Innocent III, with the intention of invading the
Holy Land through
Egypt. Because the Crusaders lacked the funds to pay for the fleet and provisions that they had contracted from the
Venetians,
Doge Enrico Dandolo enlisted the crusaders to restore the Christian city of Zara (
Zadar) to obedience. Because they subsequently lacked provisions and time on their vessel lease, the leaders decided to go to
Constantinople, where they attempted to place a Byzantine exile on the throne. After a series of misunderstandings and outbreaks of violence, the Crusaders
sacked the city in 1204 and established the so-called
Latin Empire and a series of other
Crusader states throughout the territories of the Greek
Byzantine Empire. This is often seen as the final breaking point of the
Great Schism between the
Eastern Orthodox Church and (Western)
Roman Catholic Church. After the
Sack of Constantinople, much of Asia Minor was brought under Roman Catholic rule, and the
Latin Empire of the East was established. As the conquest by the European crusaders was not exclusive to the fourth crusade, many various kingdoms of European rule were established. After the fall of Constantinople to the
Latin West the
Empire of Nicaea was established, which was later to be the origin of the Greek monarchy that defeated the Latin forces of Europe and re-established Orthodox monarchy in Constantinople and Asia Minor.
Crusades against Eastern Orthodox Christians in
Pskov in 1240 as depicted in
Sergei Eisenstein's
Alexander Nevsky (1938). Crusades against Christians in the East by Roman Catholic crusaders were not exclusive to the fourth crusade nor the
Mediterranean. The sacking of Constantinople and the
Church of Holy Wisdom, the destruction of the
Monastery of Stoudios,
Library of Constantinople and the establishment of the
Latin Empire in Constantinople and also throughout
West Asia Minor and Greece (see the
Kingdom of Thessalonica,
Kingdom of Cyprus) are considered definitive though. This is in light of perceived Roman Catholic atrocities not exclusive to the capital city of Constantinople in 1204 starting the period in the East referred to as
Frangokratia. The establishment of the Latin Empire in 1204 was intended to supplant the Orthodox
Byzantine Empire. This is symbolized by many Orthodox churches like
Hagia Sophia and
Church of the Pantokrator being converted into Roman Catholic properties and it is viewed with some rancour to the present day. Some of the European Christian community actively endorsed the attacking of Eastern Christians. This was preceded by a European backed attempted conquest of Byzantium, Greece, and
Bulgaria and other Eastern Christian countries which led to the establishment of the
Latin Empire of the East and the
Latin Patriarch of Constantinople (with various other
Crusader states). The
Teutonic Order's attempts to conquer
Orthodox Russia (particularly the Republics of
Pskov and
Novgorod), an enterprise endorsed by
Pope Gregory IX, can also be considered as a part of the
Northern Crusades. One of the major blows for the idea of the conquest of Russia was the
Battle of the Ice in 1242. With or without the Pope's blessing, Sweden also undertook several
crusades against Orthodox Novgorod. Many in the East saw the actions of the West in the Mediterranean as a prime determining factor in the weakening of Byzantium which led to the empire's eventual conquest and fall to Islam.
Albigensian Crusade excommunicating the Albigensians (left), Massacre against the Albigensians by the crusaders (right) The
Albigensian Crusade was launched in 1209 to eliminate the
heretical Cathars of
Occitania (the south of modern-day
France). It was a decade-long struggle that had as much to do with the concerns of northern France to extend its control southwards as it did with heresy. In the end, both the Cathars and the independence of southern France were exterminated. After a
papal legate was murdered by the Cathars in 1208, Pope Innocent III declared the Albigensian Crusade. Abuses committed during the crusade caused Innocent III to informally institute the first papal inquisition to prevent future aberrational practices and to root out the remaining Cathars. Formalized under
Pope Gregory IX, this
Medieval inquisition executed an average of three people per year for heresy at its height. Over time, other inquisitions were launched by the Church or secular rulers to prosecute heretics, to respond to the threat of
Moorish invasion or for political purposes.
Children's Crusade The
Children's Crusade is a series of possibly fictitious or misinterpreted events of 1212. The story is that an outburst of the old popular enthusiasm led a gathering of children in France and Germany, which Pope Innocent III interpreted as a reproof from heaven to their unworthy elders. The leader of the French army, Stephen, led 30,000 children. The leader of the German army, Nicholas, led 7,000 children. None of the children actually reached the Holy Land; those who did not return home or settle along the route to Jerusalem either died from
shipwreck or
hunger, or were sold into
slavery in
Egypt or
North Africa.
Fifth Crusade, 1217–1221 By processions, prayers, and preaching, the Church attempted to set another crusade afoot, and the
Fourth Council of the Lateran (1215) formulated a plan for the recovery of the Holy Land. In the first phase, a crusading force from
Austria and
Hungary joined the forces of the king of Jerusalem and the
prince of Antioch to take back Jerusalem. In the second phase, crusader forces achieved a remarkable feat in the capture of
Damietta in Egypt in 1219, but under the urgent insistence of the
papal legate,
Pelagius, they launched a foolhardy attack on
Cairo in July 1221. The crusaders were turned back after their dwindling supplies led to a forced retreat. A night-time attack by Sultan
Al-Kamil resulted in a great number of crusader losses and eventually in the surrender of the army. Al-Kamil agreed to an eight-year peace agreement with Europe.
Sixth Crusade, 1228–1229 Emperor Frederick II had repeatedly vowed a crusade but failed to live up to his words, for which he was
excommunicated by
Pope Gregory IX in 1228. He nonetheless set sail from
Brindisi, landed in Palestine, and through diplomacy he achieved unexpected success: Jerusalem,
Nazareth, and
Bethlehem were delivered to the crusaders for a period of ten years. In 1229 after failing to conquer Egypt, Frederick II of the
Holy Roman Empire made a peace treaty with Al-Kamil. This treaty allowed Christians to rule over most of Jerusalem, while the Muslims were given control of the
Dome of the Rock and the
Al-Aqsa Mosque. The peace brought about by this treaty lasted for about ten years. Many of the Muslims though were not happy with Al-Kamil for giving up control of Jerusalem, and in 1244, following a
siege, the Muslims regained control of the city.
Seventh Crusade, 1248–1254 The papal interests represented by the
Knights Templar brought on a conflict with Egypt in 1243, and in the following year a
Khwarezmian force summoned by the Templars stormed Jerusalem. The crusaders were drawn into
battle at La Forbie in
Gaza. The crusader army and its Bedouin mercenaries were defeated by
Baibars' force of Khwarezmian tribesmen. This battle is considered by many historians to have been the death knell to the
Kingdom of Outremer. Although this provoked no widespread outrage in Europe as the fall of Jerusalem in 1187 had done,
Louis IX of France organized a crusade against Egypt from 1248 to 1254, leaving from the newly constructed port of
Aigues-Mortes in southern France. It was a failure, and Louis spent much of the crusade living at the court of the crusader kingdom in Acre. In the midst of this crusade was the first
Shepherds' Crusade in 1251.
Eighth Crusade, 1270 The Eighth Crusade was organized by
Louis IX in 1270, again sailing from Aigues-Mortes, initially to come to the aid of the remnants of the crusader states in
Syria. However, the crusade was diverted to
Tunis, where Louis spent only two months before dying. For his efforts, Louis was later canonised.
Ninth Crusade, 1271–1272 The future
Edward I of England undertook another expedition against
Baibars in 1271, after having accompanied Louis on the Eighth Crusade. The Ninth Crusade was deemed a failure and ended the Crusades in the Middle East. In their later years, faced with the threat of the Egyptian
Mamluks, the Crusaders' hopes rested with a
Franco-Mongol alliance. Although the Mongols successfully attacked as far south as Damascus on these campaigns, the ability to effectively coordinate with Crusades from the west was repeatedly frustrated most notably at the
Battle of Ain Jalut in 1260. The Mamluks eventually made good their pledge to cleanse the entire Middle East of the Franks. With the fall of
Antioch (1268),
Tripoli (1289), and
Acre (1291), those Christians unable to leave the cities were massacred or
enslaved, and the last traces of Christian rule in the
Levant disappeared.
Northern Crusades The Teutonic Order's attempts to conquer
Orthodox Russia (particularly the Republics of
Pskov and
Novgorod), an enterprise endorsed by Pope Gregory IX, can be considered as a part of the
Northern Crusades. One of the major blows for the idea of the conquest of Russia was the
Battle of the Ice in 1242. With or without the Pope's blessing, Sweden also undertook several
crusades against Orthodox Novgorod. Between 1232 and 1234, there was a crusade against the
Stedingers. This crusade was special, because the Stedingers were not heathens or heretics, but fellow Roman Catholics. They were free
Frisian farmers who resented attempts of the count of
Oldenburg and the archbishop
Bremen-Hamburg to make an end to their freedoms. The archbishop excommunicated them, and
Pope Gregory IX declared a crusade in 1232. The Stedingers were defeated in 1234.
Aragonese Crusade The
Aragonese Crusade, or Crusade of Aragón, was declared by
Pope Martin IV against the
King of Aragón, Peter III the Great, in 1284 and 1285.
Crusade against the Tatars In 1259 Mongols led by
Burundai and
Nogai Khan ravaged the principality of
Halych-Volynia,
Lithuania and
Poland. After that
Pope Alexander IV tried without success
to create a crusade against the
Blue Horde. ==Second Council of Lyon==