Circular migration

Definition The term "circular migration" describes the fluid movement of people between areas, usually for the purpose of employment. The term itself first came into use in the 1960s and 1970s, mostly related to urbanization, development, and internal migration. In contrast to temporary migration, circular migration allows the worker to simultaneously be engaged with both the home and host countries. Furthermore, it typically involves both return to the country of origin and repeated moves to the destination country. In many ways, being connected to both places provides an advantage for the migrant worker, because they do not have to make a definitive choice to stay in one. This allows for the maximization of capabilities, a concept articulated by Amartya Sen and Martha Nussbaum. Circularity also allows for the maintenance of traditions, citizenship, and family, an important part of human capabilities. The circular patterns of migration can be divided into several categories: seasonal migration, non-seasonal low-wage labor, and the movement of professionals, academics, and transnational entrepreneurs. The economy and job opportunities of the location of origin are often an important determinant of migration. Furthermore, the variety of occupations in the international labor market has increased. For example, in many middle-income countries, migrants provide much of the labor in the agricultural, construction, and domestic service industries. Firstly, the size of the returning population is important, as large numbers of migrants may form a critical mass necessary for true change to occur. Secondly, the duration of the absence of the migrants is influential, as too short of an absence brings little change and too long of an absence leads to difficulties in readjustment. Thirdly, it is important to consider social class, as the elite may have a greater impact than unskilled workers. Fourth, the extent to which the origin and destination areas are different can have an effect, as those who migrate to metropolitan areas will have a greater impact if returning to an urban rather than a rural area. Lastly, the quantity and quality of the skills that the migrant acquires while abroad can determine the impact of migration. In terms of who migrates, circular migrant workers are more likely to be male, have primary education, and come from more rural and less developed areas. Education, gender, age, and the reasons for return from the first migration all affect the choice of migration form. In addition, circular migration rates are high among the poor. Through these networks, migrants are able to help each other by providing information about where to go, the best way to get jobs, where to live, etc., helping them to overcome many of the costs and barriers of entry. Furthermore, through these social networks, workers are able to keep up with families, economic activities, political interests, and individual cultures. This also contributes to the self-perpetuating nature of circular migration. With each return visit, migrants learn more about work, housing, and the process of migration itself. These social relationships and experiences, referred to as "migration-specific capital", lower the risk and costs of moving and improve the changes of success. ==Benefits==

Triple-win The concept of circular migration has been described as a triple-win scenario, providing benefits for the host country, the home country, and the migrants themselves. Developed countries allow migrants to enter in order to fill labor shortages, but with the understanding that the settlement is not permanent, distinguishing it from immigration. Developing countries benefit in the sense that they are not truly losing their skilled migrants, as these workers will return after a period of time to continue working. The migrants themselves benefit through the skills they learn abroad, as well as their increase in wages. The form of benefits in this triple-win discourse often take three forms: financial capital, human capital, and social capital. Circularity is the most beneficial whenever migrants move voluntary between locations in the pursuit of different interests, as well as when migrants have positive experiences while abroad, including financial and educational success. Financial capital Financial capital is mostly earned through remittances. Remittances are the transnational exchange of funds earned by migrants working abroad. In recent years, they have become an important global economic resource. In the 1990s, the estimated value of remittances doubled to over $105 billion each year. The United Nations estimates that the annual figure is around $232 billion, but the unofficial flow is unknown; it is possible that more than half of the remittances earned go unrecorded each year. Remittances vary in the channels used to transfer money, the amount transferred, and the manner in which the money is invested, saved, and consumed. There is evidence that circular migrants are able to send back greater remittances than permanent migrants. Human capital Human capital mostly involves the flow of skilled labor. Host countries view the circular migration of highly skilled and educated migrants as positive, while low-skilled labor is often viewed more negatively. Circular migration also allows for the international mobility of labor for shortages in specific sectors in developed countries with the surpluses present in developing countries. The skills that workers acquire while abroad may then benefit the home country upon return. Origin countries seek to increase their access to the labor markets of wealthier countries in hopes of reducing unemployment, increasing remittances, and retaining access to skilled nationals who work abroad. The networks that these skilled laborers establish can greatly benefit the home country, contributing to the social capital. Social capital also involves social remittances, non-material entities such as ideas and practices learned. While the loss of skilled labor represents a potential cost for countries of origin, it can also at times be beneficial. For instance, if there is no room in the economy of the home country to use the skilled labor, then it is better for the workers to migrate and send back remittances. When these remittances are greater than what the migrant would have made in the home country, it is also beneficial. Another example is when the migrants return with new skills, knowledge, and capacities. Lastly, the movement of skilled labor is beneficial for the country of origin when migrants forge strong economic connections between the home and host country. ==Costs==

Brain drain There are also several costs associated with circular migration. One of these is brain drain, where a migrant who migrates because of skills or education creates a loss of human resources in the country of origin. If labor migrants have children, these minors may be temporarily abandoned while their parents are abroad working. This issue is problematic and some authorities have begun to formulate policies to monitor the situation. Freedom Another issue to consider is the freedom of the migrants. Some scholars have questioned whether these workers are moving into a state of "unfreedom". The optimistic "win-win-win" discourse can often overlook the many costs involved in circular migration, as well as the difficulty that exists in implementing policies specifically for circular migration. In addition to their personal elevated risk of contracting and dying from STDs, they are also at risk of spreading the diseases to their home communities upon return. Due to the nature of their work, circular migrants are gone from home often and for great lengths of time, which can disrupt the balance of their family and sex lives. In addition to the possibility of single workers infecting partners in their home communities, migrant couples are also at a high risk of infection. In many cases, it was actually the female partner who stayed in the home community who was HIV-positive. Several possible policy interventions exist. First, employers in the area of destination should provide more family-friendly housing instead of single-sex hostels. Second, dealing with the more fundamental aspect of the issue, rural development should be encouraged. If the conditions in the home community were to be altered and improved, there would be less need for the men to seek temporary employment in urban areas in the first place. ==Case studies==

China The case of China provides one perspective on the rural-urban aspect of circular migration. Instead of traveling between countries, many circular migrants travel between their rural villages and urban centers. Legal restrictions and structural barriers prevent permanent settlement in their host destinations, forcing the workers to return home. Women in particular have begun to migrate from rural to urban areas as economic growth in China widens the cultural gap between the two areas. Urban areas offer a wide range of jobs to choose from, including domestic working as a hostess in one of China's popular karaoke bars or even owning one's own business. These migrant women are often empowered by the greater freedoms and autonomy having a personal source of income grants them. Rural areas tend to maintain more traditional gender roles, as much of the women's earnings are incorporated into the family. Women who participate in circular migration in China experience significant, lasting changes in their lives. For some, migration is associated with the desire for fewer children and a decrease in domestic violence. When these women migrate they have the opportunity to build social networks both within their home village and within their host community. For others, migration is associated with the low status of female migrant workers in urban areas and a decrease in the ability to participate in household decision making. Unfortunately, most women who migrate to the city are forced to work long hours for low wages and receive few benefits. For Puerto Rican women, circular migration is often affected by familial and marital status. Single women and mothers, or women who have recently experienced a change in marital status, such as divorce, are more likely to migrate to the United States than those women in stable and/or large families. Additionally, once women migrate to the United States they are less likely to return to Puerto Rico than men. South Africa In South Africa, circular migration exists partly because of the population mobility associated with Apartheid. Cheap labor for men existed primarily in mines and industry in urban areas, pulling men from rural areas around the country. However, their family members who were unemployed were legally bound to remain their rural villages, thus establishing a pattern of circular migration that continues to this day. The mining and industrial centres attract workers from rural areas within South Africa as well as rural areas in neighboring countries. There is a minimum of 2.5 million legal migrants, but the number of undocumented workers is likely very high, and 55% of households in 2001 had at least one temporary migrant. In recent years, the number of female circular migrants has increased rapidly. In the second half of the nineteenth century, South Africa's internal policies permitted only men to legally migrate to the city. "Influx control" measures were lifted in 1986, thus paving the way for women to begin migrating to urban areas. However, the change first affected permanent migration patterns, as female circular migration did not begin to increase substantially until over a decade later, mostly because of changing economic conditions. Overall, mobility in South Africa is high and continues to grow, as circular migration is carried out to look for work and raise children in areas with better schools. ==Circular migration and development==

Policy implications Circular migration also plays an important role in international development, and policy initiatives have the potential to aid in this development. Many policy makers from both national and international institutions are advocating for policies that make the movement of migrant workers between their home and host countries easier. In addition, long-term multi-entry visas provided to return migrants would encourage multiple and repeated trips. Relevance The issue of circular migration and its relation to development is especially relevant today. First, understanding the importance of transnationalism and the temporary and repetitive movement of migrants between countries has facilitated new thinking, specifically with regards to remittances and organized labor schemes. Second, the "win-win-win" discourse is being considered seriously as a potential option for development to provide benefits for all parties involved. Third, in the current political climate many parts of the developed world are against migration, so circular migration is an option that policy makers believe is more in touch with public opinion. Lastly, advances in technology have enabled government officials to monitor migrants as they move between their home and host countries. == See also ==