, a
cameo five layers
sardonyx,
Rome, c. AD 23, depicting the emperor
Tiberius seated with his mother
Livia and in front of his designated heir
Germanicus, with the latter's wife
Agrippina the Elder; above them float the deceased members of their house:
Augustus,
Drusus Julius Caesar, and
Nero Claudius Drusus Augustus Lacking any male child and heir, Augustus married his only child—a daughter—
Julia to his nephew
Marcus Claudius Marcellus. Marcellus, however, died of food poisoning in 23 BC. Augustus then married his widowed daughter to his loyal friend,
Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa, previously married to Augustus' niece, the sister of Marcellus. This marriage produced five children, three sons and two daughters:
Gaius Caesar,
Lucius Caesar,
Julia the Younger,
Agrippina the Elder, and
Agrippa Postumus. , 5 BC – 14 AD,
Altes Museum Gaius and Lucius, the first two children of Julia and Agrippa,
were adopted by Augustus and became heirs to the throne; however, Augustus also showed great favour toward his wife Livia's two children from her first marriage:
Tiberius and
Drusus. They were successful military leaders who had fought against the barbarian Germanic tribes. Agrippa died in 12 BC, and Tiberius was ordered by Augustus to divorce his wife
Vipsania Agrippina, daughter of Agrippa by his first marriage, and marry his stepsister, the twice-widowed Julia. Drusus, the brother of Tiberius, died in 9 BC after falling from a horse. Tiberius shared in Augustus' tribune powers, but shortly thereafter, in 6 BC, he went into voluntary exile in
Rhodes. After the early deaths of both Lucius (AD 2) and Gaius (AD 4) and the exile of both Julia the Elder and Younger for adultery, a turn of events which saw the elder Julia's half brother
Publius Cornelius Scipio exiled for treason, Mark Antony's son
Iullus Antonius committing suicide and Julia the Younger's husband
Lucius Aemilius Paullus being executed for conspiracy, Augustus was forced to recognize Tiberius as the next Roman emperor. Augustus banished his grandson Postumus Agrippa, who was adopted after the death of his brothers, to the small island of
Planasia (around AD 6 or 7) where he was later executed, and Tiberius was recalled to Rome and officially adopted by Augustus. By Augustus' request, Tiberius adopted his nephew Germanicus, son of his late brother Drusus and biological great-nephew of Augustus through his mother. Germanicus subsequently married Augustus' granddaughter Agrippina.
Tiberius On 19 August AD 14, Augustus died. Tiberius had already been established as Princeps in all but name, and his position as heir was confirmed in Augustus' will. Despite his difficult relationship with the Senate, Tiberius' first years were generally good. He stayed true to Augustus's plans for the succession and favoured his adopted son and nephew
Germanicus over his natural son,
Drusus, as did the Roman populace. On Tiberius' request, Germanicus was granted proconsular power and assumed command in the prime military zone of Germania, where he suppressed the mutiny there and led the formerly restless legions on campaigns against Germanic tribes from AD 14 to 16. Germanicus died in Syria in AD 19 and, on his deathbed, accused the governor of Syria,
Gnaeus Calpurnius Piso, of murdering him at Tiberius's orders. With Germanicus dead, Tiberius began elevating his own son Drusus to replace him as the Imperial successor. By this time Tiberius had left more of the day-to-day running of the Empire to
Lucius Aelius Sejanus. Sejanus created an atmosphere of fear in Rome, controlling a network of informers and spies whose incentive to accuse others of treason was a share in the accused's property after their conviction and death. Treason trials became commonplace; few members of the Roman aristocracy were safe. The trials played up to Tiberius' growing paranoia, which made him more reliant on Sejanus, as well as allowing Sejanus to eliminate potential rivals. Victims of this reign of terror related to the imperial family included
Gaius Asinius Gallus Saloninus, second husband of Tiberius' first wife Vipsania, who had since died, and
Decimus Haterius Agrippa, grandson of Agrippa and husband of Augustus' great-niece. Tiberius, perhaps sensitive to this ambition, rejected Sejanus's initial proposal to marry
Livilla, Germanicus' sister and the widow of Tiberius' son Drusus the Younger, who had since died, in AD 25, but later had withdrawn his objections so that, in AD 30, Sejanus was betrothed to
Julia Livia, daughter of Livilla and Drusus the Younger. Sejanus' family connection to the Imperial house was now imminent, and in AD 31 Sejanus held the Consulship with the emperor as his colleague, an honour Tiberius reserved only for heirs to the throne. When he was summoned to a meeting of the Senate later that year on 18 October AD 31, he probably expected to receive a share of the tribunician power. Instead, however, Tiberius' letter to the Senate, completely unexpectedly, requested the destruction of Sejanus and his faction. A purge followed, in which Sejanus and his most prominent supporters were killed. With Drusus dead and having had Germanicus' elder two sons
Nero and
Drusus convicted of treason and killed, along with their mother Agrippina, Tiberius appointed Caligula, Germanicus' youngest son, and
Tiberius Gemellus, the son of Drusus the Younger and grandson of Tiberius, co-heirs. Drusus III's wife
Aemilia Lepida was later forced to commit suicide after being accused of adultery. According to the historian
Suetonius, Tiberius was known for his cruelty and debauchery through his perversion on the island of
Capri, where he forced young boys and girls into orgies. On one account when one of the boys complained, Tiberius had his legs broken. Rome's second emperor died at the port town of Misenum on 16 March AD 37, at the age of 78 years, having reigned for 23 years. Suetonius writes that the Prefect of the
Praetorian Guard Naevius Sutorius Macro smothered Tiberius with a pillow to hasten Caligula's accession.
Caligula Although Augustus' succession plans were all but ruined due to the deaths of more than several family members, including many of his own descendants, in the end, Tiberius remained faithful to his predecessor's wishes that the next emperor would hail from the Julian side of the Imperial family. Thus, Tiberius was succeeded by Gaius Julius Caesar Augustus Germanicus, the sole-remaining son of his nephew and adopted son Germanicus. The new emperor was a great grandson of Augustus through his mother
Agrippina the Elder thus making him a Julian but he was also a Claudian through his father Germanicus being the son of
Livia's younger son
Drusus the Elder. More commonly remembered in history by his childhood nickname
Caligula, he was the third Roman Emperor ruling from AD 37 to 41. When Tiberius died on 16 March AD 37, Caligula was well-positioned to assume power, despite the obstacle of Tiberius's will, which named him and his cousin
Tiberius Gemellus as joint heirs. Caligula ordered Gemellus killed within his first year in power. Backed by Naevius Sutorius Macro, Caligula asserted himself as sole princeps, though he later had Macro disposed of as well. Following Gemellus' death, Caligula marked his brother-in-law,
Marcus Aemilius Lepidus, husband of his sister
Julia Drusilla, as his heir. However, after Drusilla's death, Lepidus was accused of having affairs with Caligula's other sisters
Agrippina the Younger and
Julia Livilla and he was executed. He had previously had Drusilla's first husband
Lucius Cassius Longinus killed and upon the death of Agrippina's husband
Gnaeus Domitius Ahenobarbus, he seized his inheritance. Several unsuccessful assassination attempts were made on Caligula's life. The successful conspiracy that ended Caligula's life was hatched by the disgruntled
Praetorian Guard with backing by the Senate. The historian
Josephus claims that the conspirators wished to restore the Republic, while Suetonius claims their motivations were mostly personal. On 24 January AD 41, the Praetorian tribune
Cassius Chaerea and his men stopped Caligula alone in an underground passage leading to a theatre. They stabbed him to death. Together with another tribune, Cornelius Sabinus, he killed Caligula's wife
Caesonia and their infant daughter
Julia Drusilla on the same day.
Claudius After Caligula's death, the Senate attempted and failed to restore the Republic.
Claudius, Caligula's paternal uncle, became emperor by the instigation of the Praetorian Guards. Despite his lack of political experience, and the disapproval of the people of Rome, Claudius proved to be an able administrator and a great builder of public works. His reign saw an expansion of the empire, including the
invasion of Britain in AD 43. He took a personal interest in the law, presided at public trials, and issued up to twenty edicts a day; however, he was seen as vulnerable throughout his rule, particularly by the nobility. Claudius was constantly forced to shore up his position—resulting in the deaths of many senators. Claudius also suffered tragic setbacks in his personal life. He married four times (to, in order,
Plautia Urgulanilla,
Aelia Paetina,
Valeria Messalina and, finally,
Agrippina the Younger) and is referenced by Suetonius as being easily manipulated. This is particularly evident during his marriage to Agrippina the Younger, his niece. Messalina saw several members of the dynasty eliminated, notably arranging for the executions of Claudius' nieces
Julia Livilla, daughter of Germanicus and Agrippina the Elder, and
Julia Livia, daughter of Livilla and Drusus the Younger, as well as Julia Livilla's husband
Marcus Vinicius, her mother's husband
Appius Junius Silanus,
Gaius Asinius Pollio, son of Tiberius' first wife Vipsania by her second husband and whose brother
Servius Asinius Celer was also killed around this time, Claudius' son-in-law
Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus, and his parents
Marcus Licinius Crassus Frugi and
Scribonia. Messalina herself was finally executed after being charged with adultery. With his adoption on 25 February AD 50, Nero became heir to the throne, over Claudius' own son
Britannicus. Claudius died on 13 October AD 54, and Nero became emperor. A number of ancient historians accuse Agrippina of poisoning Claudius, but details on these private events vary widely. These events are recounted in book 12 of the Annals of Tacitus, book 61 of Cassius Dio's
Roman History, and in the biographies of Nero and Claudius by Suetonius.
Nero Nero became emperor in AD 54 at sixteen, the youngest emperor yet. Like his maternal uncle Caligula before him, Nero was also a direct descendant of Augustus, a fact which made his ascension to the throne much easier and smoother than it had been for Tiberius or Claudius. Ancient historians describe Nero's early reign as being strongly influenced by his mother
Agrippina the Younger, his tutor
Seneca, and the Praetorian Prefect
Burrus, especially in the first year. In the first year of his reign, Nero had left all of the day-to-day running of the Empire to his mother
Agrippina the Younger. He was made Emperor over his step-brother, Claudius' son
Britannicus, who he had killed. Agrippina was believed to have poisoned Claudius, having allegedly poisoned her second husband
Gaius Sallustius Crispus Passienus. She had also arranged the deaths of Caligula's third wife,
Lollia Paulina and Messalina's mother
Domitia Lepida the Younger. She saw that the dynasty's numbers dwindle with the execution of
Marcus Junius Silanus Torquatus, a grandson of Julia the Younger, to strengthen Nero's claim, having previously arranged the death of his brother
Lucius Junius Silanus Torquatus. In AD 55, Nero began taking on a more active role as an administrator. He was consul four times between AD 55 and 60. Nero consolidated power over time through the execution and banishment of his rivals and slowly usurped authority from the Senate. He reportedly arranged the death of his own mother and after divorcing his wife
Claudia Octavia, daughter of Claudius' and Messalina, he had her killed. Other relatives whom Nero was believed to have had killed were Claudius' daughter by Aelia Paetina,
Claudia Antonia, her husband and half-brother of Messalina,
Faustus Cornelius Sulla Felix,
Decimus Junius Silanus Torquatus, brother of Marcus and Lucius Junius Silanus Torquantus, as well as Marcus' son, also named Lucius, his aunt
Domitia Lepida the Elder, and
Rubellius Plautus, son of Julia Livia along with his wife, children and father-in-law. In AD 64
Rome burned. Nero enacted a public relief effort as well as large reconstruction projects. To fund this, the provinces were heavily taxed following the fire. By AD 65, senators complained that they had no power left and this led to the Pisonian conspiracy, led by
Gaius Calpurnius Piso, an adoptive descendant of Triumvir
Marcus Licinius Crassus, grandson of
Gnaeus Calpurnius Piso, a governor of Syria who committed suicide after being accused of killing Germanicus, and first husband of
Livia Orestilla, Caligula's second wife. The conspiracy failed and its members were executed. Vacancies after the conspiracy allowed
Nymphidius Sabinus, a grandson of former imperial freedman
Gaius Julius Callistus, who claimed to be an illegitimate son of Caligula, to rise in the Praetorian Guard. In late AD 67 or early 68,
Vindex, the governor of
Gallia Lugdunensis in
Gaul, rebelled against Nero's tax policies.
Lucius Virginius Rufus, the governor of superior Germany, was sent to put down the rebellion. To gain support, Vindex called on
Galba, the governor of
Hispania Citerior (in the
Iberian Peninsula), to become emperor. Virginius Rufus defeated Vindex's forces and Vindex committed suicide. Galba was declared a public enemy and his legion was confined in the city of Clunia. Nero had regained the control of the empire militarily, but this opportunity was used by his enemies in Rome.
Nymphidius Sabinus, who desired to become emperor himself, bribed the Praetorian Guard to betray Nero. Sabinus was later murdered in favour of Galba. Nero reportedly committed suicide with the help of his scribe
Epaphroditus. The Senate had been trying to preserve the dynastic bloodline by saving Nero's life, and were additionally reluctant to let someone who was not of the family become emperor; however, once he had committed suicide, and with Galba marching on the city, it had no choice but to declare him a public enemy posthumously. With his death, the reign of the Julio-Claudian dynasty came to an end. Chaos then ensued in the
Year of the Four Emperors.
Survival after the fall of Nero Augustus’s bloodline endured into the era of the
Severan dynasty. It outlived Nero through the descendants of his first granddaughter,
Julia the Younger, who married
Lucius Aemilius Paullus and gave birth to
Aemilia Lepida. After marrying
Marcus Junius Silanus Torquatus, Aemilia gave birth to several children, including
Junia Calvina and
Junia Lepida. Although Calvina died childless, she was married to
Lucius Vitellius, whose elder brother was the short-lived emperor
Vitellius. Her younger sister, Junia Lepida, married
Gaius Cassius Longinus and produced a daughter called Cassia Longina. The Roman general
Gnaeus Domitius Corbulo married Cassia, who provided him with two daughters, including
Domitia Longina, later wife of the emperor
Domitian. By her first husband,
Lucius Aelius Lamia Plautius Aelianus, Domitia Longina may have been the mother or maternal grandmother of
Lucius Fundanius Lamia Aelianus. Fundanius married Rupilia, sister of
Rupilia Faustina, and had a son,
Lucius Plautius Lamia Silvanus, consul in AD 145, who, according to
Historia Augusta, married his first cousin once removed Aurelia Fadilla (d. AD 135), the daughter of emperor
Antoninus Pius and
Faustina the Elder (Rupilia Faustina's daughter). Fundanius and Rupilia were also the parents of Fundania, who married Faustina the Elder's brother
Marcus Annius Libo, consul in AD 128. Fundania's offspring included
Marcus Annius Libo, suffect consul in AD 161, and
Annia Fundania Faustina (d. AD 192), wife of
Titus Pomponius Proculus Vitrasius Pollio. Annia Fundania Faustina and both of her children, Titus Fundanius Vitrasius Pollio and
Vitrasia Faustina (d. AD 182), were executed by
Commodus on the charge of conspiracy.''''
Her brother, Marcus, had a son by the name of Marcus Annius Sabinus Libo, a senator and curator of Lavinium, and through him a grandson, Marcus Annius Flavius Libo, who served as consul ordinarius'' AD 204. Tiberius’s bloodline survived into the
2nd century through the offspring of his granddaughter
Julia Livia, wife of
Gaius Rubellius Blandus. Apart from a son,
Rubellius Plautus, executed by Nero in AD 62, Julia appears to have had a daughter,
Rubellia Bassa, who married a maternal uncle of the future Roman Emperor
Nerva by the name of Octavius Laenas. Together Laenas and Bassa had at least one child, a surmised son, who was the father of
Sergius Octavius Laenas Pontianus, consul in AD 131. ==Relationships among the rulers==