In the Principalities and the Kingdom of Romania The Orthodox hierarchy in the territory of modern Romania had existed within the ecclesiastical jurisdiction of the
Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople until 1865 when the churches in the Romanian principalities of
Wallachia and
Moldavia embarked on the path of ecclesiastical independence by nominating , Metropolitan of Ungro-Wallachia, as the first Romanian primate.
Prince Alexandru Ioan Cuza, who had in 1863 carried out a mass
confiscation of monastic estates in the face of stiff opposition from the Greek hierarchy in Constantinople, in 1865 pushed through a legislation that proclaimed complete independence of the church in the principalities from the patriarchate. In 1872, the Orthodox churches in the principalities, the
Metropolis of Ungro-Wallachia and the
Metropolis of Moldavia, merged to form the ROC. Following the
international recognition of the independence of the
United Principalities of Moldavia and Wallachia (later
Kingdom of Romania) in 1878, after a long period of negotiations with the Ecumenical Patriarchate, Patriarch
Joachim IV granted recognition to the autocephalous Metropolis of Romania in 1885, which was raised to the rank of patriarchate in 1925. Romanian Orthodox theological education was underdeveloped at the end of the nineteenth century. The theological institute at
Sibiu, for example, had only one theologian as part of its faculty; the rest were historians, journalists, naturalists, and agronomists. The focus of priestly education was practical and general rather than specialized. In the early twentieth century, the curriculum of a priest included subjects such as hygiene, calligraphy, accountancy, psychology, Romanian literature, geometry, chemistry, botany, and gymnastics. A strong emphasis was placed on church music, canon law, church history, and exegesis. After
World War I, the Kingdom of Romania significantly increased its territory. Consequently, the ROC needed massive reorganization in order to incorporate congregations from these new provinces. This led to shortages and difficulties. The Church had to establish a uniform interpretation of canon law. It had to handle public funds for paying clergymen in the newly acquired territories and, generally speaking, manage the relationship with the state. The legislation was intricate. The
Statute on the organization of the Romanian Orthodox Church adopted by the Romanian parliament on May 6, 1925, counted 178 articles. The law on the functioning of the ROC counted 46 articles. Legislators adopted the Transylvanian tradition of mixing clergymen and laymen in administrative assemblies and granted bishops seats in the Romanian Senate. However, the context also allowed a number of young theologians like
Nichifor Crainic,
Ioan Savin, or
Dumitru Stăniloae to study abroad. These theologians proved extremely influential after their return to Romania and helped shape theological academies. With a few rare exceptions, like
Gala Galaction, the Romanian Orthodox theologians of this period embraced
nationalism. Their scholarly works are thus imbued with nationalist ideology. The second half of the 1920s is marked by the rise of antisemitism in Romanian politics with figures such as
A.C. Cuza or
Iron Guard founding father
Codreanu. Antisemitism also became apparent in church publications. In 1925, for instance, church journal
Revista Teologică (The Theological Review) published an anti-Semitic article by Sibiu professor priest Pompiliu Morușca. Morușca's article blamed the Jews for the economic situation of Romanians in
Bukovina. It is a testimony of an older form of anti-Semitism going back to the 19th century. The ROC would evolve different forms of antisemitism in the 1930s. The
Concordat of 1927 also triggered anti-Catholic reactions.
Patriarchate of Miron Cristea (1919–1939) The rise of
Nazi Germany exposed Romania to the Reich's theological ideas. This mixture of nationalism, racism and theological thought found fertile ground in a ROC that was already no stranger to antisemitism. It became particularly evident in the second half of the 1930s in the writings of theologians such as
Nichifor Crainic, Nicolae Neaga or
Liviu Stan. In 1936, Crainic published a seminal text titled
Rasă și religiune (Race and Religion). While rejecting the Nazi idea of a superior Germanic race, as well as the fascination with Germanic paganism, Crainic argued that some races are indeed superior based on their accomplishment of the Christian essence. Crainic also denied the Jews the moral right to use the books of the Old Testament since, according to him, those prophesies had been fulfilled by the coming of Christ who had abolished the Jewish religion. The deaths of prominent
Iron Guard members
Ion Moța and
Vasile Marin on the same day, January 13, 1937, at
Majadahonda during the
Spanish Civil War while fighting for the
Nationalist faction led to the organization of
massive processions in Romania, particularly in Bucharest where they were interred. Hundreds of Orthodox priests participated and Metropolitans
Nicolae Bălan of
Transylvania and
Visarion Puiu of
Bukovina held special services. Shortly after the funeral, Orthodox theologian Gheorghe Racoveanu and priest Grigore Cristescu founded the theological journal
Predania (The Tradinion). The first issue featured a glorification of Moța and Marin and their sacrifice and reflected the Guard's obsession for martyrdom. Intended as a bi-monthly
Predania printed a total of twelve issues before being banned by the authorities. It stood out for its profoundly anti-ecumenical editorial line, publishing attacks against Catholics, Protestants, Evangelicals. Also in the aftermath of Moța and Marin's grandiose funeral, the Holy Synod issued a condemnation of
Freemasonry. Moreover, following the lead of Metropolitan Bălan who wrote the anti-Masonic manifest, the Synod issued a "Christian point of view" against political secularism stating that the Church was in its right to choose which party was worthy of support, based on its moral principles. Iron Guard leader
Codreanu saluted the Synod's position and instructed that the Synod's proclamation should be read by Guard members in their respective
nests (i.e. chapters). In 1937, the
Goga-
Cuza government was the first to adopt and enact antisemitic legislation in the Kingdom of Romania, stripping over two hundred thousand Jews of their citizenship. That very same year, the head of the ROC, Patriarch
Cristea made an infamous speech in which he described the Jews as parasites who suck the bone marrow of the Romanian people and who should leave the country. The Orthodox church directly or indirectly supported far-right parties and antisemitic intellectuals in their anti-Jewish rhetoric. At the time many Orthodox priests had become active in far-right politics, thus in the 1937 parliamentary elections 33 out of 103
Iron Guard candidates were Orthodox priests. Overall, the church became increasingly involved in politics and, after
King Carol II assumed emergency powers, Patriarch Miron Cristea became
prime-minister in February 1938. In March 1938, the Holy Synod banned the conversion of Jews who were unable to prove their Romanian citizenship. Cristea continued the policies of the Goga-Cuza government but also advocated more radical antisemitic measures including deportation and exclusion from employment. Cristea referred to this last measure as "Romanianization". The church newspaper
Apostolul was instrumental in propagating Cristea's antisemitic ideas throughout his premiership but church press as a whole became flooded with antisemitic materials. Miron Cristea died in March 1939. Soon after, the Holy Synod voted to uphold regulations adopted under Cristea banning the baptism of Jews who were not Romanian citizens. Cristea's death led to elections being held in order to select a new patriarch. Metropolitans
Visarion Puiu and the highly influential
Nicolae Bălan publicly declared their refusal to enter the race. Both of these bishops held pro-German, pro-Iron-Guard and antisemitic views and it is reasonable to assume that King Carol II's opposition was instrumental in their refusal. Thus, the patriarchal office passed to a reluctant
Nicodim Munteanu.
1940s – World War II and King
Carol II of Romania King Carol II abdicated on September 6, 1940. An openly pro-German coalition of the military headed by marshal
Ion Antonescu and the
Iron Guard took over. Patriarch Nicodim Munteanu's reaction was cautious and his September 1940 address was unenthusiastic. Munteanu, like Cristea before him, feared the anti-establishment nature of the Guard. But the Iron Guard was highly influential on the Church's grassroots. In January 1941, seeking full control of the country, the Iron Guard attempted a violent insurrection known as
the Legionary Rebellion. The putsch failed and out of the 9000 people arrested, 422 were Orthodox priests. Some particularly violent episodes during the insurrection directly involved the Orthodox clergy. Students and staff of the Theological Academy in Sibiu, led by Professor Spiridon Cândea and assisted by Iron Guard militiamen rounded up Jews in the courtyard of the academy and forced them to hand over their valuables at gunpoint. Monks from the Antim Monastery in Bucharest, led by their abbot, armed themselves and, using explosives, blew up a Synagogue on Antim Street. The numerous Jewish inhabitants of the neighborhood hid in terror. After Antonescu and the Army crushed the insurrection, the Holy Synod was quick to condemn the Legionary Rebellion and publicly paint it as a diabolical temptation that had led the Iron Guard to undermine the state and the
Conducător. Many of the clergymen who had participated in the Rebellion were, however, shielded by their bishops and continued parish work in remote villages. Romania's participation in
World War II on the Axis side after June 1941 would provide them with opportunities for rehabilitation. By the early 1940s, Orthodox theologians such as
Nichifor Crainic already had a lengthy record of producing propaganda supporting the concept of
Judeo-Bolshevism. After 1941 the idea became commonplace in central church newspapers such as
Apostolul or
BOR. A particularly infamous article was signed by Patriarch Nicodim himself and published in
BOR in April 1942. It referred to the danger of domestic enemies whom he identified as mostly being Jewish. In 1943
BOR published a 13-page laudatory review of Nichifor Crainic's infamous antisemitic book
Transfigurarea Românismului (The Transfiguration of Romanianism). Antisemitism was also present in regional journals, a leading example being
Dumitru Stăniloae's
Telegraful român (
The Romanian Telegraph). Orthodox chaplains in the Romanian army cultivated the Judeo-Bolshevik myth. in 1942 A particular case was Romanian-occupied
Transnistria. On August 15, 1941, The Holy Synod established a mission, rather than a new bishopric, in Romanian-occupied territories across the
Dniester. The assumption was that Soviet atheist rule had destroyed the
Russian Orthodox Church and the ROC took it upon itself to "re-evangelize" the locals. The main architect of the enterprise was
Archimandrite . In 1942 the Mission evolved into an Exarchate and was taken over by
Visarion Puiu. Many of the missionaries were former affiliates of the Iron Guard, some were seeking rehabilitation after the 1941 insurrection. Abuse against the Jewish population was widespread and numerous reports of Orthodox priests partaking and profiting from the abuse exist. In 1944, Visarion Puiu fled to Nazi Germany, then, after the war, in the West. In Romania he was tried and convicted
in absentia after the war. Many priests active in Transnistria also faced prosecution after the war, although communist prosecutors were mostly looking for connections to the Iron Guard, rather than explicitly investigating the persecution of Jews. Historical evidence regarding the ROC's role in World War II is overwhelmingly incriminating but there are a few exceptions. , metropolitan of Bukovina is one two high-ranking bishops known to have interceded in favor of the Jewish population, the other being the metropolitan
Nicolae Bălan of Transylvania. Evidence also surfaced that Simedrea personally sheltered a Jewish family in the metropolitanate compound. Priest Gheorghe Petre was recognized as
Righteous Among the Nations for having saved Jews in
Kryve Ozero. Petre was arrested in 1943 and court-martialed but was released in 1944 for lack of evidence. After
King Michael's Coup on August 23, 1944, Romania switched sides. The coup had been backed by the communists; the Church, known for its long-term record of anti-Soviet and anti-communist rhetoric now found itself in an awkward position. Patriarch Nicodim was quick to write a pastoral letter denouncing the previous dictatorship, blaming the Germans for the events that had taken place in Romania during the 30s and during the war and praising "the powerful neighbor from the East" with whom Romania had, supposedly, always had "the best political, cultural, and religious relations." Starting in 1944, and even more after
Petru Groza became Prime-minister with Soviet support in 1945, the Church tried to adapt to the new political situation. In August 1945 a letter of the Holy Synod was published in
BOR. Again, it blamed the Germans for the horrors of the war and claimed that the Orthodox Church had always promoted democracy. The Romania Army was also praised for having joined forces with "the brave Soviet armies in the war against the true adversaries of our country." Finally, the Orthodox faithful were asked to fully support the new government. Later that year
BOR published two relatively long articles authored by Bishop Antim Nica and, respectively, by Teodor Manolache. Both articles dealt with the Holocaust and painted the ROC as a savior of Jews.
Communist period (1947–1989) , were later canonized. Romania officially became a communist state in 1947. Restricted access to ecclesiastical and relevant state archives Currently, the state provides the funds necessary for paying the salaries of priests, deacons and other prelates and the pensions of retired clergy, as well as for expenses related to lay church personnel. For the Orthodox church this is over 100 million euros for salaries, with additional millions for construction and renovation of church property. The same applies to all state-recognised religions in Romania. The state also provides support for church construction and structural maintenance, with a preferential treatment of Orthodox parishes. The state funds all the expenses of Orthodox seminaries and colleges, including teachers' and professors' salaries who, for compensation purposes, are regarded as civil servants. Since the fall of communism,
Greek-Catholic Church leaders have claimed that the Eastern Catholic community is facing cultural and religious eradication. They cite opposition from the Romanian Orthodox Church to the restitution of churches that historically belonged to the Greek Catholic Church, as well as what they describe as support from the Romanian government for this position. In the context of the universality of
Eastern Orthodoxy,
Mihail Neamțu argued in 2006 that by calling itself "Romanian", the ROC "is laying claim to a perfect match between
religious and
national identity that is not borne out by real life". The church openly supported
banning same-sex marriage in a referendum in 2018. The church believes that
homosexuality is a
sin and unnatural.
In Moldova The ROC also has jurisdiction over a minority of believers in
Moldova, who belong to the
Metropolis of Bessarabia, as opposed to the majority, who belong to the
Metropolis of Chișinău and All Moldova, under the
Moscow Patriarchate. In 2001 it won a landmark legal victory against the Government of Moldova at the
Strasbourg-based
European Court of Human Rights. This means that despite current political issues, the Metropolis of Bessarabia is now recognized as "the rightful successor" to the Metropolitan Church of Bessarabia and Hotin, which existed from 1927 until its dissolution in 1944, when its canonical territory was put under the jurisdiction of the
Russian Orthodox Church's Moscow Patriarchate in 1947. After the debut of the ongoing
Russian invasion of Ukraine, the ROC in Moldova has seen a significant number of parishes switching affiliation from the Moscow controlled Metropolis of Chișinău and All Moldova to the Metropolis of Bessarabia, sometimes smoothly, otherwise through intense debates and highly polemicized switches. ==Organization and leadership==