Function composition

• Composition of functions on a finite set: If {{math|1=f = {(1, 1), (2, 3), (3, 1), (4, 2)} }}, and {{math|1=g = {(1, 2), (2, 3), (3, 1), (4, 2)} }}, then {{math|1=g ∘ f = {(1, 2), (2, 1), (3, 2), (4, 3)} }}, as shown in the figure. • Composition of functions on an infinite set: If (where is the set of all real numbers) is given by and is given by , then: • If an airplane's altitude at time  is , and the air pressure at altitude is , then is the pressure around the plane at time . • Function defined on finite sets which change the order of their elements such as permutations can be composed on the same set, this being composition of permutations. ==Properties==

The composition of functions is always associative—a property inherited from the composition of relations. Since the parentheses do not change the result, they are generally omitted. In a strict sense, the composition is only meaningful if the codomain of equals the domain of ; in a wider sense, it is sufficient that the former be an improper subset of the latter. ==Composition monoids==

Suppose one has two (or more) functions having the same domain and codomain; these are often called transformations. Then one can form chains of transformations composed together, such as . Such chains have the algebraic structure of a monoid, called a transformation monoid or (much more seldom) a composition monoid. In general, transformation monoids can have remarkably complicated structure. One particular notable example is the de Rham curve. The set of all functions is called the full transformation semigroup or symmetric semigroup on . (One can actually define two semigroups depending how one defines the semigroup operation as the left or right composition of functions.) (red) and a clockwise rotation by 45° (green). On the left is the original object. Above is shear, then rotate. Below is rotate, then shear. If the given transformations are bijective (and thus invertible), then the set of all possible combinations of these functions forms a transformation group (also known as a permutation group); and one says that the group is generated by these functions. The set of all bijective functions (called permutations) forms a group with respect to function composition. This is the symmetric group, also sometimes called the composition group. A fundamental result in group theory, Cayley's theorem, essentially says that any group is in fact just a subgroup of a symmetric group (up to isomorphism). In the symmetric semigroup (of all transformations) one also finds a weaker, non-unique notion of inverse (called a pseudoinverse) because the symmetric semigroup is a regular semigroup. ==Functional powers==

If , then f:X\to Y may compose with itself; this is sometimes denoted as f^2. That is: More generally, for any natural number , the th functional power can be defined inductively by , a notation introduced by Hans Heinrich Bürmann and John Frederick William Herschel. Repeated composition of such a function with itself is called function iteration. • By convention, is defined as the identity map on 's domain, . • If and admits an inverse function , negative functional powers are defined for as the negated power of the inverse function: . Note: If takes its values in a ring (in particular for real or complex-valued ), there is a risk of confusion, as could also stand for the -fold product of , e.g. . For trigonometric functions, usually the latter is meant, at least for positive exponents. For example, in trigonometry, this superscript notation represents standard exponentiation when used with trigonometric functions: . However, for negative exponents (especially −1), it nevertheless usually refers to the inverse function, e.g., . In some cases, when, for a given function , the equation has a unique solution , that function can be defined as the functional square root of , then written as . More generally, when has a unique solution for some natural number , then can be defined as . Under additional restrictions, this idea can be generalized so that the iteration count becomes a continuous parameter; in this case, such a system is called a flow, specified through solutions of Schröder's equation. Iterated functions and flows occur naturally in the study of fractals and dynamical systems. To avoid ambiguity, some mathematicians choose to use to denote the compositional meaning, writing for the -th iterate of the function , as in, for example, meaning . For the same purpose, was used by Benjamin Peirce whereas Alfred Pringsheim and Jules Molk suggested instead. ==Alternative notations==

Many mathematicians, particularly in group theory, omit the composition symbol, writing for . During the mid-20th century, some mathematicians adopted postfix notation, writing for and for . This can be more natural than prefix notation in many cases, such as in linear algebra when is a row vector and and denote matrices and the composition is by matrix multiplication. The order is important because function composition is not necessarily commutative. Having successive transformations applying and composing to the right agrees with the left-to-right reading sequence. Mathematicians who use postfix notation may write "", meaning first apply and then apply , in keeping with the order the symbols occur in postfix notation, thus making the notation "" ambiguous. Computer scientists may write "" for this, thereby disambiguating the order of composition. To distinguish the left composition operator from a text semicolon, in the Z notation the ⨾ character is used for left relation composition. Since all functions are binary relations, it is correct to use the [fat] semicolon for function composition as well (see the article on composition of relations for further details on this notation). ==Composition operator==

Given a function , the composition operator is defined as the operator which maps functions to functions as C_g f = f \circ g.Composition operators are studied in the field of operator theory. ==In programming languages==

Function composition appears in one form or another in numerous programming languages. ==Multivariate functions==

Partial composition is possible for multivariate functions. The function resulting when some argument of the function is replaced by the function is called a composition of and in some computer engineering contexts, and is denoted f|_{x_i = g} = f (x_1, \ldots, x_{i-1}, g(x_1, x_2, \ldots, x_n), x_{i+1}, \ldots, x_n). When is a simple constant , composition degenerates into a (partial) valuation, whose result is also known as restriction or co-factor. f|_{x_i = b} = f (x_1, \ldots, x_{i-1}, b, x_{i+1}, \ldots, x_n). In general, the composition of multivariate functions may involve several other functions as arguments, as in the definition of primitive recursive function. Given , a -ary function, and -ary functions , the composition of with , is the -ary function h(x_1,\ldots,x_m) = f(g_1(x_1,\ldots,x_m),\ldots,g_n(x_1,\ldots,x_m)). This is sometimes called the generalized composite or superposition of f with . The partial composition in only one argument mentioned previously can be instantiated from this more general scheme by setting all argument functions except one to be suitably chosen projection functions. Here can be seen as a single vector/tuple-valued function in this generalized scheme, in which case this is precisely the standard definition of function composition. A set of finitary operations on some base set X is called a clone if it contains all projections and is closed under generalized composition. A clone generally contains operations of various arities. The notion of commutation also finds an interesting generalization in the multivariate case; a function f of arity n is said to commute with a function g of arity m if f is a homomorphism preserving g, and vice versa, that is: f(g(a_{11},\ldots,a_{1m}),\ldots,g(a_{n1},\ldots,a_{nm})) = g(f(a_{11},\ldots,a_{n1}),\ldots,f(a_{1m},\ldots,a_{nm})). A unary operation always commutes with itself, but this is not necessarily the case for a binary (or higher arity) operation. A binary (or higher arity) operation that commutes with itself is called medial or entropic. ==Generalizations==

Composition can be generalized to arbitrary binary relations. If and are two binary relations, then their composition amounts to R \circ S = \{(x,z) \in X \times Z: (\exists y \in Y)((x,y) \in R\,\and\,(y,z) \in S)\}. Considering a function as a special case of a binary relation (namely functional relations), function composition satisfies the definition for relation composition. A small circle has been used for the infix notation of composition of relations, as well as functions. When used to represent composition of functions (g \circ f)(x) \ = \ g(f(x)) however, the text sequence is reversed to illustrate the different operation sequences accordingly. The composition is defined in the same way for partial functions and Cayley's theorem has its analogue called the Wagner–Preston theorem. ==Typography==

The composition symbol is encoded as ; see the Degree symbol article for similar-appearing Unicode characters. In TeX, it is written \circ. ==See also==