Narcissism

The term narcissism is derived from Narcissus, a character in Greek mythology best known from the telling in Roman poet Ovid's Metamorphoses, written in 8 CE. Book III of the poem tells the mythical story of a handsome young man, Narcissus, who spurns the advances of many potential lovers. When Narcissus rejects the nymph Echo, who was cursed to only echo the sounds that others made, the gods punish Narcissus by making him fall in love with his own reflection in a pool of water. When Narcissus discovers that the object of his love cannot love him back, he slowly pines away and dies. The concept of excessive selfishness has been recognized throughout history. In ancient Greece, the concept was understood as hubris. It was not until the late 19th century that narcissism began to be defined in psychological terms. Since that time, the term has had a significant divergence in meaning in psychology. It has been used to describe: • A sexual perversion, • A normal developmental stage, • A symptom in psychosis, and • A characteristic in several of the object relations [subtypes]. In 1889, psychiatrists Paul Näcke and Havelock Ellis used the term "narcissism", independently of each other, to describe a person who treats their own body in the same way in which the body of a sexual partner is ordinarily treated. Narcissism, in this context, was seen as a perversion that consumed a person's entire sexual life. Sigmund Freud (1914) published his theory of narcissism in a lengthy essay titled "On Narcissism: An Introduction". For Freud, narcissism refers to the individual's direction of libidinal energy toward themselves rather than objects and others. He postulated a universal "primary narcissism", that was a phase of sexual development in early infancy – a necessary intermediate stage between auto-eroticism and object-love, love for others. Portions of this 'self-love' or ego-libido are, at later stages of development, expressed outwardly, or "given off" toward others. Freud's postulation of a "secondary narcissism" came as a result of his observation of the peculiar nature of the schizophrenic's relation to themselves and the world. He observed that the two fundamental qualities of such patients were megalomania and withdrawal of interest from the real world of people and things: "the libido that has been withdrawn from the external world has been directed to the ego and thus gives rise to an attitude which may be called narcissism." In 1925, Robert Waelder conceptualized narcissism as a personality trait. His definition described individuals who are condescending, feel superior to others, are preoccupied with admiration, and exhibit a lack of empathy. His patient was a successful scientist with an attitude of superiority, an obsession with fostering self-respect, and a lack of normal feelings of guilt. The patient was aloof and independent from others, had an inability to empathize with others, and was selfish sexually. Waelder's patient was also overly logical and analytical and valued abstract intellectual thought over the practical application of scientific knowledge. Karen Horney (1939) postulated that narcissism was on a spectrum that ranged from healthy self-esteem to a pathological state. Since then, social media, bloggers, and self-help authors have indiscriminately applied "narcissism" as a label for the self-serving and for all domestic abusers. ==Expressions of narcissism==

Primary expressions Two primary expressions of narcissism have been identified: grandiose ("thick-skinned") and vulnerable ("thin-skinned"). Recent accounts posit that the core of narcissism is self-centred antagonism (or "entitled self-importance"), namely selfishness, entitlement, lack of empathy, and devaluation of others. Grandiosity and vulnerability are seen as different expressions of this antagonistic core, arising from individual differences in the strength of the approach and avoidance motivational systems. Kowalchyk, Palmieri, Conte, and Wallisch have posited that genuine narcissists may fall into the vulnerable narcissism subtype, whereas grandiose narcissism might be a form of psychopathy. Grandiose narcissism Narcissistic grandiosity is thought to arise from a combination of the antagonistic core with temperamental boldness—defined by positive emotionality, social dominance, reward-seeking and risk-taking. Grandiosity is defined—in addition to antagonism—by a confident, exhibitionistic and manipulative self-regulatory style: While this behavioral pattern is believed to be more common in men than in women, it occurs in both males and females who compensate for feelings of sexual inadequacy by becoming overly proud or obsessed with their masculinity or femininity. The controversial condition referred to as "sexual addiction" is believed by some experts to be sexual narcissism or sexual compulsivity, rather than an addictive behavior. Parental Narcissistic parents often see their children as extensions of themselves and encourage the children to act in ways that support the parents' emotional and self-esteem needs. Due to their vulnerability, children may be significantly affected by this behavior. To meet the parents' needs, the child may sacrifice their own wants and feelings. A child subjected to this type of parenting may struggle in adulthood with their intimate relationships. In extreme situations, this parenting style can result in estranged relationships with the children, coupled with feelings of resentment, and in some cases, self-destructive tendencies. Workplace There is a compulsion of some professionals to constantly assert their competence, even when they are wrong. Professional narcissism can lead otherwise capable, and even exceptional, professionals to fall into narcissistic traps. "Most professionals work on cultivating a self that exudes authority, control, knowledge, competence and respectability. It's the narcissist in us all—we dread appearing stupid or incompetent." Narcissism has been linked to a range of potential leadership problems ranging from poor motivational skills to risky decision making, and in extreme cases, white-collar crime. High-profile corporate leaders that place an extreme emphasis on profits may yield positive short-term benefits for their organizations, but ultimately drag down individual employees as well as entire companies. Subordinates may find everyday offers of support swiftly turn them into enabling sources, unless they are very careful to maintain proper boundaries. Aggressive (and counterproductive) behaviors tend to surface when self-esteem is threatened. Individuals high in narcissism have fragile self-esteem and are easily threatened. One study found that employees who are high in narcissism are more likely to perceive the behaviors of others in the workplace as abusive and threatening than individuals who are low in narcissism. Relationships Narcissism can have a profound impact on both personal and professional relationships, often creating toxic dynamics. In romantic relationships, narcissistic individuals typically demand attention and admiration from their partner while offering little in return. They often fail to show empathy or concern for their partner's emotional needs, focusing instead on fulfilling their own desires. The narcissist's behavior can shift dramatically, alternating between idealizing their partner—viewing them as perfect—and devaluing them when the narcissist no longer feels validated. This inconsistency can cause emotional confusion and distress for the partner, leaving them feeling undervalued and emotionally drained. Celebrity Celebrity narcissism (sometimes referred to as acquired situational narcissism) is a form of narcissism that develops in late adolescence or adulthood, brought on by wealth, fame and the other trappings of celebrity. Celebrity narcissism develops after childhood, and is triggered and supported by the celebrity-obsessed society. Fans, assistants and tabloid media all play into the idea that the person really is vastly more important than other people, triggering a narcissistic problem that might have been only a tendency, or latent, and helping it to become a full-blown personality disorder. "Robert Millman says that what happens to celebrities is that they get so used to people looking at them that they stop looking back at other people." In its most extreme presentation and symptoms, it is indistinguishable from narcissistic personality disorder, differing only in its late onset and its environmental support by large numbers of fans. "The lack of social norms, controls, and of people centering them makes these people believe they're invulnerable". ==Levels==

Normal and healthy levels of narcissism Some psychologists suggest that a moderate level of narcissism is supportive of good psychological health. Self-esteem works as a mediator between narcissism and psychological health. Elevated self-esteem, in moderation, supports resilience and ambition, but excessive self-focus can distort social relationships. Destructive levels of narcissism While narcissism, in and of itself, can be considered a normal personality trait, high levels of narcissistic behavior can be harmful to both self and others. On a spectrum, destructive narcissism is more extreme than healthy narcissism but not as extreme as the pathological condition. Pathological levels of narcissism Extremely high levels of narcissistic behavior are considered pathological. It manifests itself in the inability to love others, lack of empathy, emptiness, boredom, and an unremitting need to search for power, while making the person unavailable to others. German psychoanalyst Karen Horney (1885–1952) also saw the narcissistic personality as a temperament trait molded by a certain kind of early environment. ==Causes==

The mechanisms and aetiology of narcissistic traits remain unclear, but researchers have examined the role of genetics, childhood experiences, evolutionary and neurobiological factors. Heritability and environment Heritability studies using twins have shown that narcissistic traits, as measured by standardized tests, are often inherited. Narcissism was found to have a high heritability score (0.64) indicating that the concordance of this trait in the identical twins was significantly influenced by genetics as compared to an environmental causation. Studies have generally found that global indices of narcissism are generally moderately heritable (37-77%). Furthermore, evidence suggests that individual elements of narcissism have their own heritability score. • For example, the generally adaptive, intrapersonal grandiosity has a heritability score of 0.23, while maladaptive, interpersonal entitlement has a score of 0.35. • Mirroring these results, adaptive traits of narcissism in general (grandiosity, dominance) was 37% heritable, while maladaptive/antagonistic traits in general (e.g., entitlement, exploitativeness) were 44% heritable. In all cases, the genetic and environmental factors associated with each trait are largely unique and non-overlapping, indicating different causes. Research also consistently supports an association between antagonistic aspects of narcissism (common to both grandiosity and vulnerability) and multiple ACEs, including abuse, neglect, low supervision, instability and household dysfunction. The adaptive features unique to grandiose narcissism tend to be positively correlated, albeit weakly, with parental warmth. Grandiosity is sometimes associated with parental overvaluation (especially in children with high self-esteem), but results have been inconsistent. Vulnerable narcissism shows the opposite association with structural properties (cortical thickness and volume) in some of the same areas. Grandiose narcissism is associated with high testosterone at rest and in response to social challenge, where it relates to increased aggression. There is increasing support for an hierometer theory, which suggests that grandiose narcissism in particular serves the evolutionary function of allowing individuals to navigate status hierarchies. Experimental and longitudinal studies demonstrate that levels of perceived status (feeling respected and admired) or status-relevant attributes (e.g. intelligence, competence) are causally related to narcissistic self-regard, with increases in status-related perceptions increasing grandiosity and assertive behaviour, while decreases promote reductions in narcissism and more acquiescent behaviour. ==Dark triad==

Narcissism is one of the three traits in the dark triad model. The dark triad of personality traits – narcissism, Machiavellianism, and psychopathy – shows how narcissism relates to manipulative behaviors and a lack of empathy. Narcissism has variously been correlated with both traits, though psychologists such as Delroy Paulhus and Kevin Williams see enough evidence that it is a distinct trait. However, researchers who criticize the dark triad model point out that many of the theoretical traits said to distinguish psychopathy, Machiavellianism, and narcissism from one another do not appear in empirical research. The dark tetrad, also known as the "dark quad", expands the dark triad with the addition of sadism which is consistent with the observation of lack of empathy among this suite of personalities. Sadism refers to the pleasure derived from the pain or humiliation of another. Sadism tracks with the satisfaction these personalities derive from extracting "narcissistic supply" from their targets which involves psychological abuse. ==Collective narcissism==

Collective narcissism is a type of narcissism where an individual has an inflated self-love of their own group. While the classic definition of narcissism focuses on the individual, collective narcissism asserts that one can have a similar excessively high opinion of a group, and that a group can function as a narcissistic entity. ==Normalization of narcissistic behaviors==

Some commentators contend that the American populace has become increasingly narcissistic since the end of World War II. According to sociologist Charles Derber, people pursue and compete for attention on an unprecedented scale. The profusion of popular literature about "listening" and "managing those who talk constantly about themselves" suggests its pervasiveness in everyday life. The growth of media phenomena such as "reality TV" programs Also supporting the contention that American culture has become more narcissistic is an analysis of US popular song lyrics between 1987 and 2007. This found a growth in the use of first-person singular pronouns, such as I, me, my, and mine, reflecting a greater focus on the self, and also of references to antisocial behavior; during the same period, there was a diminution of words reflecting a focus on others, positive emotions, and social interactions. References to narcissism and self-esteem in American popular print media have experienced vast inflation since the late 1980s. One study looked at differences in advertising between an individualistic culture, United States, and a collectivist culture, South Korea and found that in the US there was a greater tendency to stress the distinctiveness and uniqueness of the person; whereas advertising in South Korean stressed the importance of social conformity and harmony. These cultural differences were greater than the effects of individual differences within national cultures. ==Controversies==

There has been an increased interest in narcissism and narcissistic personality disorder (NPD) in the last 10 years. There are areas of substantial debate that surround the subject including: • Clearly defining the difference between normal and pathological narcissism, ==See also==