Discrimination against homeless people

"Homelessness" as a term was first used in the United States after the emergence of the Industrial Revolution. During this period of time the demand for agricultural work and trade work shifted instead to a demand for factory workers who would find themselves dependent on wages from a wealthier employer. The term "homelessness" was first coined in the 1870s as a response to the negative perception Americans had of the many young men travelling the country who were viewed as troublemakers and nontraditional tramps due to their unwillingness to participate in factory work. The modern conception of homelessness can be marked as emerging in the 1980s when homelessness was drastically exacerbated by an economic recession, low wages, high housing costs, gentrification of the inner cities, insufficient social services, the HIV/AIDS crisis, the crack epidemic, and the deinstitutionalization of the mentally ill. In addition, incarceration rates have disproportionately increased while jailhouse programs tasked with providing ex-offenders with job training and tangible employment opportunities have been cut, leaving a sizeable segment of the population with decreased resources to avoid poverty and potential homelessness. == Intersectional analysis of discrimination ==

Social discrimination against homeless people is well documented and can differ depending on gender, race, age, sexuality, and other factors. For instance, research focusing on adults who self identified as part of a sexual or gender minority revealed that this cohort reported higher rates of discrimination and subsequent mental health deterioration as a result, oftentimes leading to increased substance abuse. This study also revealed that despite differences among sexual and gender minority adults, the most commonly reported reason for experiencing discrimination was perceived to be a reaction to their status of homelessness instead of other characteristics such gender or sexuality. Intersectional studies of discrimination revealed that mothers face higher rates of eviction than men due to gendered stigma, with African American and Latina women being disproportionately affected. Accessing shelter and preventative assistance was found to be deterred by fear of attracting the attention of Child Protective Services, as well as the stigma associated with substance abuse and the perceived correlation to poor parenting. Stereotyping involved with substance abuse is complicated by mothers reporting higher rates of forced or coerced dependence on substances by a second party, and institutions often lack the knowledge or resources to adequately address these disparities, which leads mothers to feeling shamed and discouraged from seeking assistance. This was due to perceived rejection from family members and peers, and led to increases in substance abuse and lower levels of mental health. Despite differences in identity or minoritized status, all respondents reported the same levels of stress and discrimination, which suggests that social support is the primary resource most useful in increasing levels of hopefulness. This is relevant due to the correlation found between higher levels of hope and a quicker rehabilitation from homelessness. dominant narratives frequently depict it as a result of individual failings such as laziness, irresponsibility, or mental incapacity. Such framings obscure the systemic drivers of homelessness and sustain discriminatory attitudes. Moreover, these representations contribute to the construction of homeless people as medical or public health risks, with their lifestyles portrayed as threats to community safety and personal wellbeing. Importantly, the effects of stigma are not uniform: homeless men are often stereotyped as dangerous or morally deficient, while homeless women are more likely to be characterised as pitiable or undesirable. These gendered perceptions reflect deeply rooted cultural prejudices and highlight how intersectional stigma reproduces social marginalisation. ==Discriminatory legislation and criminalization==

Discriminatory legislation targets the activities and actions that many homeless people engage in, but due to the nature of these actions there have been questions of constitutional legitimacy in enforcing criminalization measures on the grounds that they are a violation of civil rights. Examples of discriminatory criminalization includes restricting permitted areas used for sitting or sleeping, restrictions on panhandling, forced removals from an area, destruction of property, overly vague loitering and vagrancy laws, limiting bathroom access, prohibiting dumpster diving, punishing asocial or antisocial behavior, and unequal enforcement of the law. The criminalization of panhandling, destruction of property, and forced removal from public and private areas has been argued by opponents to be violations of the First Amendment's protection of free speech and unlawful search and seizure. An American Civil Liberties Union report cited the issues that arise from forced relocation in a report focusing on the city of Los Angeles, which pushed homeless individuals to remote locations near the desert, far away from available food, water, and crucial services. The criminalization of sleeping or camping in public and private areas was ruled as unconstitutional by the Ninth Circuit US Court of Appeals on the grounds that it is a violation of the Eighth Amendment's protection from cruel and unusual punishment. The reasoning behind this argument was that homeless people should not be punished as long as homeless people lack the facilities to conduct these acts privately. In addition, despite Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 prohibiting employment discrimination, arguments have arisen over address requirements in job applications that can result in discrimination against homeless people. Since homeless individuals have no residence, they often list the address of homeless shelters in job applications and have subsequently reported being denied positions regardless of sufficient qualification and positive interview sessions before address disclosure. Anti-camping legislation Anti-camping legislation prohibits a number of actions that target homeless people. The rules and regulations typically vary between municipalities, but some of the prohibited behaviors include sleeping on public or private property, setting up a tent or tent-like structure, or keeping property stored in unauthorized areas. The spaces where this behavior is prohibited can include parks, beaches, sidewalks, roads, under bridges, and other public and private areas. Anti-camping legislation in municipalities has increased because of the 2024 Supreme Court ruling in Grants Pass v. Johnson, which states that the criminalization of homeless people sleeping in public areas or setting up encampments does not constitute as a violation of the Eighth Amendment. The repercussions of this ruling may include increased fining, arrests, and sudden relocations of individuals outside of city limits. Some of the concerns regarding this ruling include the threat of property loss during forced relocation, including personal phones, medication, and items of identification that can hinder prospects of future employment, housing, and safety if lost. Lack of access to public restrooms According to the National Alliance to End Homelessness, there was a total of 553,742 homeless people accounted for across the United States as of January 2017. Of those accounted for, 192,875 of them were unsheltered and lived in inhumane and unsafe conditions. Many unsheltered homeless camps are located in industrial districts and along highways, far away from public parks facilities where traditional public bathrooms are located. If local municipalities do not provide bathroom access, homeless people are left to urinate and defecate in the streets and waterways near their camps. The University of Colorado Denver released a report highlighting the criminalization of homelessness across the state of Colorado. The report found that 83% of the people interviewed said they were denied bathroom access because they were homeless. Without access to bathrooms, many unsheltered homeless people across the country are left to live in unsanitary conditions which, in turn, leads to public health concerns such as the hepatitis A outbreak in California during 2016–2018. A report in The New England Journal of Medicine found that 649 people in California were infected with hepatitis A in 2017, and that most of those affected were homeless. Anti-homeless architecture Some cities and towns have incorporated hostile architecture, also known as defensive architecture, to deter homeless people through the use of uncomfortable designs that prevent sitting or sleeping. These designs include spikes, segregated benches, and gated doorways. Research conducted by Crisis recorded that 35% of homeless people surveyed were unable to find a place to sleep as a result of the designs. In addition, a fifth of respondents reported experiencing other measures, such as intentionally disruptive sounds being played, to drive them out of area. As of 2024, 256,610 people experiencing homelessness are unsheltered, largely due to the predicament that there are only enough beds to accommodate 53% of the homeless individuals who need them. This leaves many homeless people with no other option than to sleep outside, which is made more difficult and degrading by hostile architecture and noise pollution. == Hate crimes and violence ==

Homeless individuals are not covered under hate crime statues federally, and there are very few studies that focus on the victimization of homeless individuals as a group. The majority of the existing literature and documentation of emotional or physical harm inflicted upon a homeless person due to their housing status has been compiled by the National Coalition for the Homeless, whose work in the area has inspired different state legislatures to incorporate homelessness as a protected category of their state's hate crime laws. The NCH's repository lists roughly 2000 reported incidents of violence against homeless people and 588 murders over the past 23 years, however the true number of crimes committed against homeless people is hard to surmise due to the issue of underreporting. These crimes have allegedly been committed due to the victim's homelessness, or because some aggressors may view homeless people as vulnerable and easy to target. Evidence supporting this claim comes from neural imaging studies which revealed that participants responded to images of homeless individuals with contempt, disgust, and dehumanization; which indicates a partial explanation for the discrimination and hate crimes that homeless people are subjected to. Violent crimes against homeless people in other countries include the Ximending student feces-throwing incident in Taiwan. == Health ==

Homeless youth, especially those from minority groups, have to deal with considerable mental health challenges, including depression, anxiety, and PTSD, which are further aggravated by experiences of discrimination, trauma, and lack of consistent housing. Mental health amongst minority youth Mental health issues are rampant among homeless people, especially among minority youths, because they suffer compounded effects from harmful living conditions, trauma, and discrimination from systems. According to Covenant House, approximately 50% of homeless youth have depression, anxiety, or PTSD as a result of stressful and traumatic conditions. A study conducted on homeless minority youths in Los Angeles found that the experience of racial and ethnic discrimination is very closely related to emotional distress like depression and anxiety. A study conducted in Canada regarding indigenous homeless youth also revealed that their major challenges in mental health are anxiety and depression with suicidal thoughts. It's important to underscore social interventions and community care in exposure to violence, food insecurity, and unstable family environments. This often becomes a vicious cycle that increasingly deteriorates mental health. Stress from homelessness can worsen existing conditions and initiate other problems. Homeless persons may lack identification or access to transportation, making it difficult to provide them with mental health services. Other than the absence of identification and transportation, which can be seen more as structural barriers, the barriers also include lack of insurance, which limits their ability to access viable health care options. Such impediments, combined with administrative barriers such as limited clinic operating hours and complicated intake procedures, frequently result in missed appointments or avoidance of care entirely. Furthermore, racial discrimination and ethnic bias also permeate many of these disparities; minority homeless people face even further disadvantages when trying to access adequate and appropriate healthcare. Consequently, any policies developed to address these concerns should not only be aimed at increasing housing availability but should also include measures to prevent discrimination in healthcare settings, such as anti-bias education for healthcare providers and improving access to healthcare. == Media perceptions ==

Imagery Discrimination towards people experiencing homelessness is influenced in part by the images used to portray homelessness in the media. Media representations frequently depict homelessness as involving older men sleeping rough on the streets for extended periods. In the United Kingdom, The Centre for Homelessness Impact maintains an online image library featuring more representative images of real people experiencing homelessness. The collection includes images of individuals living in temporary accommodation, sofa surfing, living in hostel accommodation and those experiencing street homelessness. == See also ==