Djaru language

Word-initial phonemes in Djaru may be any consonant or semi-vowel with the exception of alveolar taps /ɾ/ or the palatal laterals /ʎ/. A word can end with any phoneme except for a semi-vowel. Stress occurs on the initial syllable of a word, and on the initial syllable of a second morpheme. A stressed syllable tends to also be the highest in pitch, but stress in Djaru, as with pitch, is phonologically irrelevant. That is, stress and pitch have no essential bearing on a word's meaning. Djaru does not contain any of the fricatives (e.g. [f], [v], [ʃ], [ð]) or affricates (e.g. [pf], [ts]); these sound types are rarely found in any Australian Aboriginal languages. Consonants Djaru consonants form clusters of no more than two phonemes. /ɽ/ can be heard as a flap [ɽ] or a glide [ɻ]. Vowels Djaru, like most Australian languages, has only three vowel sounds (a high-front vowel, high-back vowel, and low vowel), each vowel varies considerably according to its immediate phonetic environment. == Word classes ==

Djaru includes the following word classes: noun, free pronoun, adverb, preverb, verb, particle, interjection. {{Interlinear|lang=ddj|indent=2 (Free pronouns also display an ergative-absolutive case system) The possible ways to modify a noun into ergative case are with the following suffixes: -ŋgu, -gu, -lu, -gulu, -du, -u. The use of each morpheme depends, of course, on the immediately preceding phonological environment. Preverbs Djaru includes a unique word class (absent in most languages) known as the preverb class. Preverbs have two uses in Djaru: firstly they may be used similarly to adjectives in that they modify verbs but in doing so create new semantic units, secondly they may be used like nouns when attached with nominal suffixes. Some examples of preverbs: ('sitting'), ('camping out'), ('finishing'). When combined with verbs, the above preverbs come out with the following meanings: == Syntax ==

Word order Simple Djaru sentences typically display a subject–object–verb word order; however, this is not a strict grammatical rule. The verb and object are often swapped around, and in some cases, verbs are not required at all. == Metaphors ==

Usually, when sensory verbs (see, taste, hear etc.) are used metaphorically – as in, "I see what you mean" or, "I see how this works" – languages almost exclusively use the word for vision in order to express knowledge. But as Evans & Wilkins explain, the Djaru language (along with many Aboriginal Australian languages) go against this trend and use terms for hearing to express knowledge: for example, (literally 'ear put') translates as 'to learn'. == Avoidance language ==

Avoidance languages are a rare phenomenon in human language yet quite common among the original Australian languages. The vocabulary for the Djaru avoidance language is extremely limited as it only consists of one verb, . The verb is semantically neutral and must be inserted into the verb phrase of whatever sentence is spoken in the avoidance language. == Sign language ==

The Djaru language includes a set of sign-language items in its lexicon. Commonly occurring actions, and commonly sighted animals and objects are represented by finger and hand gestures for the purposes of hunting. Direction can also be expressed by the pointing of lips. == History ==

The Djaru language of the western Kimberley region is still alive, yet the speakers of Djaru and their culture have not remained unscathed by the destructive advance of colonialism. It has been estimated that as many as 160 Australian languages have died since the European invasion of Australia. This has been largely due to both the sheer number of deaths among the Aboriginal people at the hands of European settlers, and harsh white-government policy banning Aboriginal languages in public places and schools. As of 2006 only around 60 Australian languages are reportedly in use. Towards the end of the 19th century the Djaru region became the target of white settlers. The region was carved up for gold mining and cattle farming, and the original inhabitants became the victims of several massacres. It is estimated that the Djaru population has decreased since then by as much as 50%. The existence of white settlements and farms in the region has had a significant effect on the way of life of the Djaru people. The use of traditional Australian-style tools, housing, and food (bush tucker) has mostly been replaced by modern western equivalents. Also, the use of the avoidance language has drastically diminished, and the traditional method of arranging marriages is not always observed. ==References==