Background The
Roman provinces and native populations in
Southeastern Europe, including the province of
Dalmatia and other parts of the
Praetorian prefecture of Illyricum, were attacked and conquered by the
Huns and
Goths with the latter
Ostrogoths forming
Ostrogothic Kingdom (493–553). The archaeological findings of
fibulae and other
artifacts confirm the presence of Ostrogoths and
Gepids in Northern Dalmatia, and Pannonia. Although the
Byzantine Empire managed to reconquest the territory (albeit the
Plague of Justinian and
Late Antique Little Ice Age), since the mid-6th century followed even more devastating intrusions and migrations of the
early Slavs. Most of the Roman province by the 7th century were pressured by
Avar Khaganate, a nomadic confederacy led by the
Pannonian Avars who subjugated surrounding Slavic tribes. In c. 614 the Avars and Slavs sacked and decisively destroyed the capital of the province of Dalmatia,
Salona, and retained direct control of the region. According to the
De Administrando Imperio, the
White Croats were either invited into province of Dalmatia by the Byzantine Emperor
Heraclius (r. 610–641) and allowed to settle there after
defeating the Avars, or prevailing the Avars after the lengthy war the Croats migrated across the Sava from
Pannonia Savia and settled Dalmatia on their own. According to the same source, the Croats were led by five brothers (Kloukas, Lobelos, Kosentzis, Mouchlo, Chrobatos) and two sister (Touga, Bouga), their first
archon during the Avar wars and settlement was unnamed father of
Porga, and first Christianization happened during the rule of Porga himself (both contemporaries of Heraclius, as per source). However, the accounts have been variously interpreted by historians, that the Croatian war against the Avars possibly was a revolt after the Croats already settled in Dalmatia, were supported diplomatically by the
Byzantine Empire after the unsuccessful
Siege of Constantinople (626), or was a reference to the late 8th and early 9th century Frankish-
Avar Wars (rejected). Although the
Christianization of Croats began right after their arrival to Dalmatia, in the early 9th century a part of the Croats were still pagan, being a gradual process which continued in the 8th until mid-9th century. By the early 9th century, Croatia emerged as a political entity with a
duke as head of the state, territorially in the basins of the rivers Cetina,
Krka and
Zrmanja. It was administered in 11
counties (
županija):
Archaeology The evidence for the 7th century arrival of new Slavic(-Croatian) population are cremation burials,
Prague culture pottery,
fibulae and other artifacts found near them, which are atypical for a Roman and Christian population at the time, as well destruction of inhabitations and churches, and changes of native's lifestyle. In case of early Croats, the inhumation was also done making a burial chamber with wooden or stone structure, which "was a tradition brought from the original homeland of the Croats in the north, and had no parallels in the native regional cultures". However, although material culture proves migration of the Slavs, it is practically impossible to differentiate with early Slavic material culture the Slavic tribal ethnic identities from the general mass of Slavs. Christianization possibly began to be more widely accepted since the 8th century. The cremation burials in the early 8th century were followed by cemeteries in rows with pagan burial practices until mid-9th century, then cemeteries in rows with pagan and Christian burial practices and cemeteries in rows with exclusively Christian burial practices until second-half of the 11th century, and cemeteries next to churches with burials from the 9th to 11th centuries, with mandatory burials next to churches since second-third of the 11th century. In Dalmatia they most probably were war booty from the Frankish-Avar Wars (788–803), or
Battle of Kupa (819). Croats from the late-8th and in the 9th century have high concentration of
Carolingian-Viking swords (over 24, mostly of K-type but also 1-type and H-type, post-Carolingian emerge R-type and X-type), and other war equpiment (including a long knife, long spear, and arrows, as well boots with spurs, belt trappings and else of Carolingian influence), some considered as evidence of Croatian participation in the
Frankish-Avar Wars in the late 8th and early 9th century (although Frankish sources do not mention Croatian ethnonym between early 7th and late 9th century), and being part of the Central-European and Carolingian political and cultural world of influence at least since duke
Borna (c. 810–821). However, the distribution and concentration of K-type swords in Europe does not correspond with the hypothesis they were official armament of the Frankish army. They are neither evidence of a late 8th-early 9th century migration of Croats, as some scholars have argued, but as Frankish gifts of loyalty, were influential to the consolidation of the Croatian elite identity and ethnogenesis at the time. The distribution of post-Carolingian weapons and cavalry equipment in present-day Croatia and Bosnia and Herzegovina, found near old roads and often with gold coins of
Constantine V (741–775) which were still in use, is within the borders and correspoding historical events related to the Duchy of Croatia and Kingdom of Croatia. in Lower Pannonia. Recent archaeological findings from
Brekinjova Kosa at Bojna near
Glina in Lower Pannonia, including rich burial (golden spurs with mounting set, pendant with rock crystal, gold coin of Constantine V, clothing woven with gold threads) belonging to a local duke at Bojna, which have very similar analogies in Biskupija near Knin and Morpolača near
Stankovci in Dalmatia, indicate it belonged to the Croats who spread control to the area around
Sisak. Female dress earrings (grape-like made of precious metals) and else include "examples of the craftsmanship of Byzantine goldsmiths, presumably imported through one of the cities in Dalmatia which was under Byzantine rule", but "are known to have been found in Western Pannonia". Simpler jewellery of silver and bronze are S-type (typical of Sclaveni) and pseudo-S-type earrings, omega-type and star-shaped pendants of Byzantine origin, and many rings and necklaces. Rare containers made of antlers and engraved with iconography (two horned animals facing the
tree of life between them) were also found only in Western Pannonia (
Sopron and
Zalavar, Hungary). Artifacts made of bone, alongside other mentioned, suddenly disappear with the introduction of the Christian burial since the mid-9th century, as well were abandoned pagan necropolises (nearby which emerge graveyards of Christian ritual), but there was no destruction, which indicate that the "adoption of Christianity by the Croats was effected without great social upheavals". Several archaeological findings and inscriptions dating to the late 8th and first half of the 9th century in the territory of early medieval Croatia show missionary activity of the
Patriarchate of Aquileia. artifacts during the course of the Early Mediaeval period (per Sokol 1999). Some of the findings "are a characteristic of Croatian production". Since the mid-9th century flourished a distinctive Croatian-type production of jewellery (most notable being large bead shaped earrings with "no contemporary European parallel", while statistically by order earrings, pendants, rings, buttons, necklaces). The workshops probably were located in
Solin and
Knin in Dalmatia, and Sisak in the continental part. Archaeologists recognize and distinguish two cultural variants of the "Old-Croatian" archaeological period (7/9th-11th century), a proper Old-Croatian or Croatian-Dalmatian/Littoral culture, and Pannonian-
Bijelo Brdo culture (since mid-10th century), which were contemporary to
Carinthian-Köttlach culture in the west. Findings of the Croatian-Dalmatian variant were found from Istria down to Dubrovnik, in the hinterland near rivers
Neretva,
Vrbas and
Bosna and into southwestern Pannonia, while the second variant was mostly present between
Sava–
Drava region in Croatia and in northern
Bosnia and Herzegovina with some findings in Adriatic coast and hinterland. The archaeological findings of Croatian-Dalmatian culture in Lower Pannonia and northwestern Bosnia and Herzegovina, as well in Istria and eastern parts of Bosnia and Herzegovina, can be attributed to influence and trade, but also expansion of the early medieval Croatia.
Frankish vassalage The
Franks gained control of Pannonia and Dalmatia in the 790s and the first decade of the ninth century. In 788
Charlemagne, after conquering
Lombardy, turned further east and subjugated
Istria. In the 790s, Duke
Vojnomir of Pannonia accepted the Frankish overlordship, whose land the Franks placed under the
March of Friuli and tried to extend their rule over the Croatians of Dalmatia. In 799, the Franks under the leadership of
Eric of Friuli were defeated in the
Battle of Trsat in
Liburnia. However, from 803 Frankish rule was recognized in most of northern Dalmatia. The Franks also waged wars with the Byzantine Empire until a peace treaty, known as the
Pax Nicephori, was signed in 812. By that treaty the Byzantines retained control of the coastal cities and islands in Dalmatia, while acknowledging Frankish rule over Istria and the Dalmatian hinterland. From c. 810
Borna ruled most of northern Dalmatia and was a vassal of the
Carolingian Empire. Borna was Duke of the
Guduscani (and later duke of
Dalmatia, as well
Dalmatia and Liburnia), a tribe that most probably lived in the region of
Gacka (today in
Lika). His rule was marked by the rebellion of
Ljudevit Posavski against the Franks (defeating
Cadolah of Friuli), and Ljudevit defeated Borna in the
Battle of Kupa (819) somewhere near the
River Kupa and began to ravage Dalmatia, but harsh conditions and constant attacks from Borna's men forced Ljudevit to retreat. The Byzantine influence on Croatia was also reflected on the creation of Croatian law and in trade with the Byzantine coastal cities. In the second quarter of the 9th century the Croats began developing a navy. Along with the Narentines, who were still
pagan at the time and occupied the territory of the river Neretva mouth, they were active in the Adriatic Sea and made shipping and traveling in the area hazardous, especially for Venice. Therefore, in 839 the
Venetians under
Doge Pietro Tradonico attacked the eastern coast of the Adriatic, including Croatia, but during the assault they signed peace with their ruler,
princeps Mislav (), who ruled from Klis near Split. The peace treaty was signed at a place named St. Martin. The Doge also attacked Narentine islands, but failed to defeat them and made peace with their leader, who is mentioned as count
Drosaico by the chronicler
John the Deacon. However, the peace treaty was short-lasting and next year the Venetians were defeated by the Narentines under count
Diuditum. Piracy continued in the Adriatic, as well as hostility towards Venice, which is seen from the contract between Emperor
Lothair I and Doge Tradonico, in which the Doge committed himself to defend the cities in
Italy and Istria from Slavic attacks. Duke Mislav was succeeded around 845 by
Trpimir I, who continued the formal legacy of being the
vassal of the
Frankish king Lothair I (840–855), although he managed to strengthen his personal rule in Croatia. Arab campaigns thoroughly weakened the Byzantine Empire and Venice, which was used in the advance of the Croatian duke in 846 and 848. In 846, Trpimir successfully attacked the Byzantine coastal cities and their
patricius. Between 854 and 860, he successfully defended his land from the
Bulgarian invasion under
Knyaz Boris I of Bulgaria, somewhere in Northeastern
Bosnia, concluding a peace treaty with Boris and exchanging gifts. Constantine Porphyrogenitus mentions the traditional friendship between the
Bulgarians and
Croatians, who coexisted peacefully up to that time. In a Latin charter preserved in a rewrite from 1568, dated to 4 March 852 or, according to a newer research, about 840, Trpimir refers to himself as "leader of the Croats with the help of God" (); his land, called "
Kingdom of the Croats" (), can simply be interpreted as the "Realm of the
Croats", since Trpimir was not a king. The term
regnum was also used by other dukes of that time as a sign of their independence. This charter also documents his ownership of the Klis Fortress, from where his rule was centered, and mentions Mislav's donations to the
Archbishopric of Split. In the proximity of his court in
Klis, in Rižinice, Trpimir built a church and the first
Benedictine monastery in Croatia. Trpimir's name is inscribed on a stone fragment from an altar screen of the Rižinice monastery church. He is more expressly remembered as the founder of the
House of Trpimirović, a native Croat dynasty that ruled, with interruptions, from 845 until 1091 in Croatia. In 864 Duke
Domagoj, founder of the
House of Domagojević, usurped the throne after the death of Trpimir and forced his sons, including
Zdeslav, to flee to
Constantinople. During the rule of Domagoj piracy was a common practice in the Adriatic. The pirates attacked Christian sailors, including a ship with
papal legates returning from the
Eighth Catholic Ecumenical Council, thus forcing the Pope to intervene by asking Domagoj to stop piracy, but his efforts were of no avail. Domagoj waged wars with the
Arabs, Venetians and Franks. In 871, he helped the Franks, as their vassal, to seize
Bari from the Arabs, but later actions of the Franks under the rule of
Carloman of Bavaria led to a revolt by Domagoj against the Frankish rule. The revolt succeeded and Frankish overlordship in Dalmatia ended, but was to continue a little longer over
Lower Pannonia. Domagoj's rule also saw increased
Byzantine influence in the area, especially reflected in the establishment of
Theme of Dalmatia. After the death of Domagoj in 876 Zdeslav, who had close ties to Byzantium, returned from exile, usurped the throne from an unnamed son of Domagoj and restored peace with Venice in 878.
Independent realm 's charter from 892. (transcript):
divino munere Croatorum dux ("with God's help, Duke of the Croats"). with a Carolingian
westwork from the late 9th century. Duke Zdeslav's reign was short and ended in 879 when
Branimir of the House of Domagojević killed him and usurped the throne. Branimir was unlike Zdeslav a proponent of Rome and returned the country to the Roman fold. He had regular contacts with
Pope John VIII, to whom he sent a letter revealing his intentions to entrust his people and his country to the
Apostolic See. The Pope replied to his requests, praising his initiative and in 879 the Duchy under Branimir, now free of Frankish suzerainty, received papal recognition as a state. The second half of the 9th century marked a significant increase in papal influence in the
Southeastern Europe. Pope John VIII complained to Domagoj about the obstinacy of
Patriarch Ignatius who denied his jurisdiction over Bulgaria and appointed a new archbishop. The Pope also requested from Dukes Zdeslav and Branimir assistance and protection for his legates who were crossing Croatia on their way to
Bulgaria. Although the exact geographical extent of the Duchy is not known, these requests confirm geographical contiguity between Croatia and Bulgaria, which bordered probably somewhere in
Bosnia. During his rule, in the late 9th century the Hungarians
crossed the Carpathians and entered the
Carpathian Basin. They invaded northern Italy and also defeated Duke
Braslav from the Duchy of Pannonia, endangering Croatia. Muncimir ruled until about 910 when he was succeeded by
Tomislav, the last duke and the first king of Croatia. Venetian chronicler John the Deacon wrote that in 912 a Venetian ambassador, returning from Bulgaria, passed through Croatian territory before reaching the land of Zahumlje, which suggests that Croatia at the time also bordered Bulgaria, then under the rule of
Simeon I. In
Historia Salonitana, a chronicle from the 13th century written by
Thomas the Archdeacon from Split, Tomislav was mentioned as Duke of Croatia in 914. According to
De Administrando Imperio, Croatia at the time had 100,000 infantrymen and 60,000 horsemen, 80 large ships and 100 smaller vessels, During the
war between the Byzantium and Bulgaria of Simeon I, in about 923, the Byzantines concluded an alliance with Croatia. Prior to that the Bulgarians had several decisive victories against the Byzantines, capturing
Adrianople and endangering Constantinople. In 924, Simeon I deposed
Zaharija from rule in
Serbia, who fled to Croatia. In 926, Simeon's troops invaded Croatia, but were severely defeated in the
Battle of the Bosnian Highlands. In 927
Pope John X sent his legates to mediate a peace treaty between Croats and Bulgarians. During these years Croatia was elevated to the status of a
kingdom. It is generally said that Duke Tomislav was crowned king in 925, but this is not certain since it is not known when and where was he crowned, or was he crowned at all. However, Tomislav was the first Croatian ruler whom the Papal chancellery honoured with the title king. Tomislav is mentioned as a king in two preserved documents published in the
Historia Salonitana and by the
Chronicle of the Priest of Duklja, where Tomislav's rule was specified at 13 years. In a note preceding the text of the Council conclusions in Split in 925 it is written that Tomislav is the king "in the province of the Croats and in the Dalmatian regions" (
in prouintia Croatorum et Dalmatiarum finibus Tamisclao rege). In the 12th canon of the Council conclusions in 925 the ruler of the Croats is called "king" (
rex et proceres Chroatorum), while in a letter sent by the Pope John X Tomislav is named "King of the Croats" (
Tamisclao, regi Crouatorum). Although there are no inscriptions of Tomislav to confirm the title, later inscriptions and charters confirm that his 10th century successors called themselves "kings". ==See also==