Duodecimal

:In this section, numerals are in decimal. For example, "10" means 9+1, and "12" means 9+3. Georges Ifrah speculatively traced the origin of the duodecimal system to a system of finger counting based on the knuckle bones of the four larger fingers. Using the thumb as a pointer, it is possible to count to 12 by touching each finger bone, starting with the farthest bone on the fifth finger, and counting on. In this system, one hand counts repeatedly to 12, while the other displays the number of iterations, until five dozens, i.e. the 60, are full. This system is still in use in many regions of Asia. Languages using duodecimal number systems are uncommon. Languages in the Nigerian Middle Belt such as Janji, Gbiri-Niragu (Gure-Kahugu), Piti, and the Nimbia dialect of Gwandara; and the Chepang language of Nepal are known to use duodecimal numerals. Germanic languages have special words for 11 and 12, such as eleven and twelve in English. They come from Proto-Germanic *ainlif and *twalif (meaning, respectively, one left and two left), suggesting a decimal rather than duodecimal origin. However, Old Norse used a hybrid decimal–duodecimal counting system, with its words for "one hundred and eighty" meaning 200 and "two hundred" meaning 240. In the British Isles, this style of counting survived well into the Middle Ages as the long hundred ("hundred" meaning 120). Historically, units of time in many civilizations are duodecimal. There are twelve signs of the zodiac, twelve months in a year, and the Babylonians had twelve hours in a day (although at some point, this was changed to 24). Traditional Chinese calendars, clocks, and compasses are based on the twelve Earthly Branches or 24 (12×2) Solar terms. There are 12 inches in an imperial foot, 12 troy ounces in a troy pound, 24 (12×2) hours in a day; many other items are counted by the dozen, gross (144, twelve squared), or great gross (1728, twelve cubed). The Romans used a fraction system based on 12, including the uncia, which became both the English words ounce and inch. Historically, many parts of western Europe used a mixed vigesimal–duodecimal currency system of pounds, shillings, and pence, with 20 shillings to a pound and 12 pence to a shilling, originally established by Charlemagne in the 780s. == Notations and pronunciations ==

In a positional numeral system of base n (twelve for duodecimal), each of the first n natural numbers is given a distinct numeral symbol, and then n is denoted "10", meaning 1 times n plus 0 units. For duodecimal, the standard numeral symbols for 0–9 are typically preserved for zero through nine, but there are numerous proposals for how to write the numerals representing "ten" and "eleven". More radical proposals do not use any Arabic numerals under the principle of "separate identity." In 1936, Luise Lange proposed names for duodecimal numbers bigger than twelve and used . Edna Kramer in her 1951 book The Main Stream of Mathematics used ⟨⟩ and ⟨⟩ (sextile and number sign). From 2008 to 2015, the DSA used , the symbols devised by William Addison Dwiggins. The Dozenal Society of Great Britain (DSGB) proposed symbols . In March 2013, a proposal was submitted to include the digit forms for ten and eleven propagated by the Dozenal Societies in the Unicode Standard. Of these, the British/Pitman forms were accepted for encoding as characters at code points and . They were included in Unicode 8.0 (2015). After the Pitman digits were added to Unicode, the DSA took a vote and then began publishing PDF content using the Pitman digits instead, but continued to use the letters X and E on its webpage. In January 2026, it changed its webpages to use the letters A and B, while using the Pitman digits in The Duodecimal Bulletin and their other publications. Base notation There are also varying proposals of how to distinguish a duodecimal number from a decimal one. The most common method used in mainstream mathematics sources comparing various number bases uses a subscript "10" or "12", e.g. " = ". To avoid ambiguity about the meaning of the subscript 10, the subscripts might be spelled out, " = ". In 2015 the Dozenal Society of America adopted the more compact single-letter abbreviation z for dozenal and d for decimal, " = ". Other proposed methods include italicizing duodecimal numbers "54 = 64", adding a "Humphrey point" (a semicolon instead of a decimal point) to duodecimal numbers "54;6 = 64.5", prefixing duodecimal numbers by an asterisk "*54 = 64", or some combination of these. The Dozenal Society of Great Britain uses an asterisk prefix for duodecimal whole numbers, and a Humphrey point for other duodecimal numbers. Twelve cubed ( or ) is called a great gross. == Advocacy and "dozenalism" ==

William James Sidis used 12 as the base for his constructed language Vendergood in 1906, noting it being the smallest number with four factors and its prevalence in commerce. The case for the duodecimal system was put forth at length in Frank Emerson Andrews' 1935 book New Numbers: How Acceptance of a Duodecimal Base Would Simplify Mathematics. Emerson noted that, due to the prevalence of factors of twelve in many traditional units of weight and measure, many of the computational advantages claimed for the metric system could be realized either by the adoption of ten-based weights and measure or by the adoption of the duodecimal number system. Duodecimal systems of measurements Systems of measurement proposed by dozenalists include Tom Pendlebury's TGM system, Takashi Suga's Universal Unit System, == Comparison to other number systems ==

:In this section, numerals are in decimal. For example, "10" means 9+1, and "12" means 9+3. The Dozenal Society of America argues that if a base is too small, significantly longer expansions are needed for numbers; if a base is too large, one must memorise a large multiplication table to perform arithmetic. Thus, it presumes that "a number base will need to be between about 7 or 8 through about 16, possibly including 18 and 20". The number 12 has six factors, which are 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, and 12, of which 2 and 3 are prime. It is the smallest number to have six factors, the largest number to have at least half of the numbers below it as divisors, and is only slightly larger than 10. (The numbers 18 and 20 also have six factors but are much larger.) Ten, in contrast, only has four factors, which are 1, 2, 5, and 10, of which 2 and 5 are prime. Six shares the prime factors 2 and 3 with twelve; however, like ten, six only has four factors (1, 2, 3, and 6) instead of six. Its corresponding base, senary, is below the DSA's stated threshold. Eight and sixteen only have 2 as a prime factor. Therefore, in octal and hexadecimal, the only terminating fractions are those whose denominator is a power of two. Thirty is the smallest number that has three different prime factors (2, 3, and 5, the first three primes), and it has eight factors in total (1, 2, 3, 5, 6, 10, 15, and 30). Sexagesimal was actually used by the ancient Sumerians and Babylonians, among others; its base, sixty, adds the four convenient factors 4, 12, 20, and 60 to 30 but no new prime factors. The smallest number that has four different prime factors is 210; the pattern follows the primorials. However, these numbers are quite large to use as bases, and are far beyond the DSA's stated threshold. In all base systems, there are similarities to the representation of multiples of numbers that are one less than or one more than the base.In the following multiplication table, numerals are written in duodecimal. For example, "10" means twelve, and "12" means fourteen. == Conversion tables to and from decimal ==

To convert numbers between bases, one can use the general conversion algorithm (see the relevant section under positional notation). Alternatively, one can use digit-conversion tables. The ones provided below can be used to convert any duodecimal number between 0.1 and ,. to decimal, or any decimal number between 0.1 and 99,999.9 to duodecimal. To use them, the given number must first be decomposed into a sum of numbers with only one significant digit each. For example: :12,345.6 = 10,000 + 2,000 + 300 + 40 + 5 + 0.6 This decomposition works the same no matter what base the number is expressed in. Just isolate each non-zero digit, padding them with as many zeros as necessary to preserve their respective place values. If the digits in the given number include zeroes (for example, 7,080.9), these are left out in the digit decomposition (7,080.9 = 7,000 + 80 + 0.9). Then, the digit conversion tables can be used to obtain the equivalent value in the target base for each digit. If the given number is in duodecimal and the target base is decimal, we get: :(duodecimal) 10,000 + 2,000 + 300 + 40 + 5 + 0.6 = (decimal) 20,736 + 3,456 + 432 + 48 + 5 + 0.5 Because the summands are already converted to decimal, the usual decimal arithmetic is used to perform the addition and recompose the number, arriving at the conversion result: Duodecimal ---> Decimal 10,000 = 20,736 2,000 = 3,456 300 = 432 40 = 48 5 = 5 + 0.6 = + 0.5 ----------------------------- 12,345.6 = 24,677.5 That is, (duodecimal) 12,345.6 equals (decimal) 24,677.5 If the given number is in decimal and the target base is duodecimal, the method is same. Using the digit conversion tables: (decimal) 10,000 + 2,000 + 300 + 40 + 5 + 0.6 = (duodecimal) 5,954 + 1,18 + 210 + 34 + 5 + 0. To sum these partial products and recompose the number, the addition must be done with duodecimal rather than decimal arithmetic: Decimal --> Duodecimal 10,000 = 5,954 2,000 = 1,18 300 = 210 40 = 34 5 = 5 + 0.6 = + 0. ------------------------------- 12,345.6 = 7,189. That is, (decimal) 12,345.6 equals (duodecimal) 7,189. Duodecimal to decimal digit conversion Decimal to duodecimal digit conversion == Fractions and irrational numbers ==

Fractions :In the following two lists, numerals are in duodecimal. For example, "10" means 9+3, and "12" means 9+5. Duodecimal fractions for rational numbers with 3-smooth denominators terminate: • = 0.6 • = 0.4 • = 0.3 • = 0.2 • = 0.16 • = 0.14 • = 0.1 (this is one twelfth, is one tenth) • = 0.09 (this is one sixteenth, is one fourteenth) while other rational numbers have recurring duodecimal fractions: • = 0. • = 0. • = 0.1 (one tenth) • = 0. (one eleventh) • = 0. (one thirteenth) • = 0.0 (one fourteenth) • = 0.0 (one fifteenth) As explained in recurring decimals, whenever an irreducible fraction is written in radix point notation in any base, the fraction can be expressed exactly (terminates) if and only if all the prime factors of its denominator are also prime factors of the base. Because 2\times5=10 in the decimal system, fractions whose denominators are made up solely of multiples of 2 and 5 terminate:  = ,  = , and  =  can be expressed exactly as 0.125, 0.05, and 0.002 respectively. and , however, recur (0.333... and 0.142857142857...). Because 2\times2\times3=12 in the duodecimal system, is exact; and recur because they include 5 as a factor; is exact, and recurs, just as it does in decimal. The number of denominators that give terminating fractions within a given number of digits, , in a base is the number of factors (divisors) of b^n, the th power of the base (although this includes the divisor 1, which does not produce fractions when used as the denominator). The number of factors of b^n is given using its prime factorization. For decimal, 10^n=2^n\times 5^n. The number of divisors is found by adding one to each exponent of each prime and multiplying the resulting quantities together, so the number of factors of 10^n is (n+1)(n+1)=(n+1)^2. For example, the number 8 is a factor of 103 (1000), so \frac{1}{8} and other fractions with a denominator of 8 cannot require more than three fractional decimal digits to terminate. \frac{5}{8}=0.625_{10}. For duodecimal, 10^n=2^{2n}\times 3^n. This has (2n+1)(n+1) divisors. The sample denominator of 8 is a factor of a gross 12^2=144 (in decimal), so eighths cannot need more than two duodecimal fractional places to terminate. \frac{5}{8}=0.76_{12}. Because both ten and twelve have two unique prime factors, the number of divisors of b^n for grows quadratically with the exponent (in other words, of the order of n^2). Recurring digits The Dozenal Society of America argues that factors of 3 are more commonly encountered in real-life division problems than factors of 5. Thus, in practical applications, the nuisance of repeating decimals is encountered less often when duodecimal notation is used. Advocates of duodecimal systems argue that this is particularly true of financial calculations, in which the twelve months of the year often enter into calculations. However, when recurring fractions do occur in duodecimal notation, they are less likely to have a very short period than in decimal notation, because 12 (twelve) is between two prime numbers, 11 (eleven) and 13 (thirteen), whereas ten is adjacent to the composite number 9. Nonetheless, having a shorter or longer period does not help the main inconvenience that one does not get a finite representation for such fractions in the given base (so rounding, which introduces inexactitude, is necessary to handle them in calculations), and overall one is more likely to have to deal with infinite recurring digits when fractions are expressed in decimal than in duodecimal, because one out of every three consecutive numbers contains the prime factor 3 in its factorization, whereas only one out of every five contains the prime factor 5. All other prime factors, except 2, are not shared by either ten or twelve, so they do not influence the relative likeliness of encountering recurring digits (any irreducible fraction that contains any of these other factors in its denominator will recur in either base). Also, the prime factor 2 appears twice in the factorization of twelve, whereas only once in the factorization of ten; which means that most fractions whose denominators are powers of two will have a shorter, more convenient terminating representation in duodecimal than in decimal: • 1/(22) = = • 1/(23) = = • 1/(24) = = • 1/(25) = = The duodecimal period length of 1/n are (in decimal) :0, 0, 0, 0, 4, 0, 6, 0, 0, 4, 1, 0, 2, 6, 4, 0, 16, 0, 6, 4, 6, 1, 11, 0, 20, 2, 0, 6, 4, 4, 30, 0, 1, 16, 12, 0, 9, 6, 2, 4, 40, 6, 42, 1, 4, 11, 23, 0, 42, 20, 16, 2, 52, 0, 4, 6, 6, 4, 29, 4, 15, 30, 6, 0, 4, 1, 66, 16, 11, 12, 35, 0, ... The duodecimal period length of 1/(nth prime) are (in decimal) :0, 0, 4, 6, 1, 2, 16, 6, 11, 4, 30, 9, 40, 42, 23, 52, 29, 15, 66, 35, 36, 26, 41, 8, 16, 100, 102, 53, 54, 112, 126, 65, 136, 138, 148, 150, 3, 162, 83, 172, 89, 90, 95, 24, 196, 66, 14, 222, 113, 114, 8, 119, 120, 125, 256, 131, 268, 54, 138, 280, ... Smallest prime with duodecimal period n are (in decimal) :11, 13, 157, 5, 22621, 7, 659, 89, 37, 19141, 23, 20593, 477517, 211, 61, 17, 2693651, 1657, 29043636306420266077, 85403261, 8177824843189, 57154490053, 47, 193, 303551, 79, 306829, 673, 59, 31, 373, 153953, 886381, 2551, 71, 73, ... Irrational numbers The representations of irrational numbers in any positional number system (including decimal and duodecimal) neither terminate nor repeat. Examples: == See also ==