Ma-i

Description In 1225, the Zhu Fan Zhi noted that "the country of Ma-i is to the north of Borneo" and added that few pirates reach these shores. It also noted that "the people of Ma-i live in large villages (literally "settlements of more than a thousand households") on the opposite banks of a stream". In the 1349 document Daoyi Zhilüe, it is noted that the settlement of Ma-i consisted of houses arranged on the two banks of a stream. It also noted that "its mountain range is flat and broad", "the fields are fertile," and "the climate is rather hot". ==Documentary sources==

The Chinese and Bruneian records both describe trade relations with Ma-i. Ma-i is first mentioned in Volume 186 of the official history of the Song dynasty, which lists Ma-i among the southern sea nations with whom Chinese merchants traded in the year 971 AD (the fourth year of Kai Bao of Song). The document describes the government's efforts to regulate and tax this "luxurious" trade. Historian William Henry Scott describes this entry as "the first positive reference to political states in or near the Philippines." Ma-i could be possibly mentioned earlier since the Arabic author Al Ya'akubi, writing in 800, recorded that the kingdom of Musa (Muja, which is old Brunei) was in alliance with the kingdom of Mayd (Ma-i), against the Chinese Empire, which they waged war against. In 1980, historian Robert Nicholl argued that the nation of "Maidh", referred to in the 10th-century records of the Sultanate of Brunei, refers to Ma-i, although Scott does not recognize this as a positive identification. Later references to Ma-i, all describing trade, include: • another mention (in Volume 489) in the History of Song, • the 1225 AD Song dynasty document Zhu Fan Zhi (), • the 1317 AD Yuan dynasty document Wenxian Tongkao (), and • the 1349 AD Yuan dynasty document Daoyi Zhilüe (). Historiography The majority of these sources only mention Ma-i briefly, either affirming that Ma-i was one of the nations conducting trade in the "south seas" area or repeating hearsay about the supposed location of Ma-i. Scott notes that of the documents describing Ma-i, only the Zu Fan Zhi and the Daoyi Zhilüe provide substantial details. Filipino Chinese historian Bon Juan Go, in turn, notes that only the Wenxian Tongkao and Volumes 186 and 489 of the History of Song provide definitive dates. Because all of these are Chinese imperial documents, historiographers have to consider the Sinocentric nature of the sources whenever conducting their analysis. As noted by Zandro Vasquez Villanueva in 2009: ==Economic activities and trade practices==

Since all the documents describing Ma-i were primarily concerned with trade, its economic activities and trade practices are the most documented aspects of Ma-i culture. Exported products Both the Song dynasty records (specifically the Zhu Fan Zhi) and Yuan dynasty records (specifically the Daoyi Zhilüe) describe the local products as "kapok cotton, yellow bees-wax, tortoise shell, medicinal betel nuts and cloth of various patterns." The 1225 Zhu Fan Zhi lists "yuta cloth" while the 1349 Daoyi Zhilüe lists "cloth of various patterns." Barter items accepted as exchange The Zhu Fan Zhi notes that in exchange, the locals accepted products such as "porcelain, trade gold, iron pots, lead, colored glass beads, and iron needles." The Daoyi Zhilüe later lists "caldrons, pieces of iron, red cloth or taffetas of various color stripes, ivory, and 'tint or the like'" as accepted items of exchange. ==Culture==

Religion Creature found in the Philippines around the proposed vicinity of Ma-i. While documents did not definitively describe the religious beliefs of the people of Ma-i, the Zhu Fan Zhi did note the presence of unspecified religious artifacts in Ma-i, supposedly as of 1225 AD: Contemporary historiographers do not draw conclusions about the religion of Ma-i's residents based on this text. In his book Prehispanic Source Materials for the Study of Philippine History, Scott notes that a literal translation of the Zhu Fan Zhi text describes "metal buddhas." However, he and Chinese Scholar I-hsiung Ju translated this in 1968 as "metal images" to correct for the linguistic bias of the text. In his seminal 1984 book Prehispanic Source Materials for the Study of Philippine History, Scott particularly questioned whether the presence of these images reflected actual beliefs by the people of Ma-i: Earlier writers, including José Rizal and Ferdinand Blumentritt, accepted the "buddhist connection" more readily. For example, in supporting Blumentritt's proposition that Ma-i was somewhere on Luzon Island, Rizal cites the use of the word "Buddhas" by the Zhu Fan Zhi as evidence: Precluded from finding any Buddhist artifacts in Ma-i, Henry Otley Beyer, an American archaeologist, was able to excavate from Palawan (an island southwest of Mindoro that is presumably Ma-i) a clay medallion of a Buddhist Bodhisattva. The presence of this Buddhist religious item, along with the incorporation of Tantric philosophical and religious ideals in Tagalog vocabulary, may be proofs that indeed Ma-i was practicing Buddhism before the advent of Islam. Food The Chinese records made no specific note of the solid food the people of Ma-i ate, but the Daoyi Zhilüe did describe their process for making alcoholic beverages: Clothing The Zhu Fan Zhi describes the people of Ma-i as covering themselves "with a cloth like a sheet or hide their bodies with a loin cloth." And the Daoyi Zhilüe, written a century later, describes the clothing and coiffure of the people of Ma-i, saying "In their customs they esteem the quality of chastity and uprightness. Both men and women do up their hair in a mallet-like tress. They wear a blue cotton shirt." Funerary practices In 1349, the Daoyi Zhilüe also made observations of funerary practices, describing them thus: ==Diplomatic relations==

Relationship with China and Brunei notes that Ma-i's relationship with Song and Yuan Dynasty was defined by trade, not by diplomacy: The nature of Ma-i's relationship with Brunei is less clear because of scant documentation, but there is no indication of any relationship other than possible trade. However, in the 1300s the Chinese annals, Nanhai zhi, reported that Brunei had invaded or administered the Philippine kingdoms of Butuan, Sulu and Ma-i as well, which would regain their independence at a later date. == Possible sites ==

Early theories for the location of Ma-i include locations in Central Luzon or the Southern Tagalog regions. and asserted by local historians, suggested Malolos in Bulacan as a potential site for Ma-i. For many years, scholars believed that Ma-i was likely to have been on the island of Mindoro within the municipality of Bulalacao, as there is an old settlement there named Mait. However, this has been questioned on the basis of physical evidence and an analysis of Chinese orthography. Recent scholarship casts doubt on this theory, arguing that historical descriptions better match Bay, Laguna (whose name is pronounced either Ba-e[h] or Ba-i), which once occupied a large territory on the eastern coasts of Laguna de Bay. Both sites have names that sound similar to Ma-i. The pre-colonial name of Mindoro was "Ma-it", whereas historical variants of the name of Bay, Laguna include "Bae", "Bai", and "Vahi". Mindoro as Ma-i Mindoro being equated to Ma-i or Mait was first mentioned in Spanish records, when Chapter 36 of Juan Francisco de San Antonio's Chronicas de N.S.P. Francisco en las Islas Filipinas, China y Japón 1738 is called De la Provincia y Isla de Mait o Mindoro ("The Province of the Island of Mait or Mindoro"), showing that the term Mait and Mindoro were once interchangeable. From the late 19th century to the early 20th century, scholars such as Ferdinand Blumentritt and Dr. Fletcher Gardener found out that the Hampangan, otherwise known as the Hanunoo of southern Mindoro, called the island as Mait or Mayit. Toponymic evidence further reinforces this historical continuity. The name Bulacan is etymologically derived from the term for cotton (bulak), a connection mirrored in the historical nomenclature of San Ildefonso (formerly Bulac) and various localities in Bocaue. Similarly, the production of beeswax is reflected in the name of San Miguel de Mayumo, while the recorded trade in betel nuts corresponds to the deeply ingrained cultural practice of betel chewing among the pre-colonial populations of the upper Pampanga River Basin. Furthermore, the mention of sophisticated textiles serves as an index of a well-established, pre-colonial handweaving industry in the provinces of Bulacan and Pampanga. The inclusion of tortoise shells in Wang’s catalog also points toward the ecological significance of the Bataan coastline—a known habitat for sea turtles (pawikan), later evidenced by the Hispanic toponym Tortugas in Balanga. Collectively, these references suggest that the extraction and trade of such marine and terrestrial resources were already systematic and widespread prior to European contact. This early description provides a plausible historical basis for the prevalence of indigo-related toponyms across the Manila Bay littoral, many of which derive from indigenous terms for the indigo plant (Indigofera suffruticosa), such as tayum and nila. Linguistic and geographical evidence further substantiates the antiquity of these dyeing practices. Examples include Patayum (the former name of Barangay San Bartolome in Pampanga), which denotes a site dedicated to indigo dyeing, and Tayuman in Manila, signifying a location for indigo cultivation. Furthermore, the etymology of Maynila (Manila) exemplifies this naming convention; the prefix May- ("to have" or "there is") combined with the root nila ("indigo") suggests that the settlement was historically characterized by the abundance or processing of this natural dye. The possible readings of in Hokkien and Mandarin: • Hokkien • Mandarin Relationship with nearby territories The Zhu Fan Zhi mentions a number of territories in its account of Ma-i, saying: Contemporary scholars believe that these are the Baipuyan (Babuyan Islands), Bajinong (Busuanga), Liyin (Lingayen) and Lihan (present day Malolos City). Malolos is a coastal town and one of the ancient settlement around Manila Bay near Tondo. While the phrase "subordinates" has sometimes been interpreted to mean that these places are territories of Ma-I, Scott clarifies that: ==Ma-i after the Yuan dynasty records==

No mentions of the country of Ma-i have been found after 1349 (or 1339 depending on the source). However, historians generally believe that Ma-i continued to exist under a different name. Later events on the island of Mindoro If, even though it had disappeared from historical writings, Ma-i really was located in Mindoro and it continued to exist until 1500, some believe by it would have been affected by the raids conducted by the Sultanate of Brunei around the year 1498–99, which included a series of raids against Taytay in Palawan and the island of Mindoro. Spanish conquest If Ma-i continued to exist until the 1570s, then it must have been affected by the arrival of the Spanish conquerors. As described in an anonymous account translated in Blair and Robertson's The Philippine Islands, 1493–1898, Miguel López de Legazpi sent Captain Martín de Goiti and Juan de Salcedo on an expedition to Mindoro in May 1570, to counteract Muslim pirates based on the island who were attacking their new headquarters on nearby Panay Island. Legazpi himself would arrive on Mindoro the next year, 1571. The Spanish conquered and burned two square forts on Lubang Island, each with earthen embankments 2 meters high and a surrounding moat two and a half fathoms wide. Each fort, moreover, had 10 to 12 lantakas, not counting several smaller guns. After destroying these Muslim forts, they despoiled the town of Mamburao while they were at Mindoro. There was even stone walls in one of the hills defending Mindoro. Whatever happened to Ma-i between the last time it was mentioned by documents at the end of the Yuan Dynasty in the 14th century and the beginning of Spanish conquest in the 1570s, both Mindoro and Bay were eventually absorbed into the Philippine Islands under the Spanish Empire. ==Presumed rulers of Ma-i==

==Associated Filipino family names==

• Gatmaitan – Ferdinand Blumentritt believed that Ma-i may have been the origin of the Filipino Family name Gatmaitan, which can be broken down into "Gat", meaning leader or lord; the word Mait; and the suffix "-an", which indicates a place name. The ancestor which gave the Gatmaitan family its name was lord of a place named "Mait" or "Maitan" • Gatchalian – Misinterpretations of the word "Shi" in the Song dynasty records have led to the family name Gatchalian also being associated with Ma-i. The name can be broken down as "Gat Sa Li-han" (Lord at Li-han), and the records list Li-han as one of the palaces "of Ma-i's Shi." Scott debunks the perception that Li-han is a place ruled by Ma-i, and suggests instead that Li-han is a place "of the same kind" (but of lesser rank) as Ma-i. Also, instead of equating Li-han with Malolos, Scott suggested that Li-han may be Lumban, Laguna. ==See also==