Pseudo-Justin identifies
Homer as the main source for the theological views of pagans, views which he criticizes. The theories of the pagan Greek thinkers, the author claims, share in this false Homeric heritage. Pseudo-Justin instead offers up
Moses as the source of proper theological views. He claims that Moses was more ancient—and thus, more authoritative—than Homer or any other pagan writer. He also claims that many of the good ideas which pagan philosophers had were taken from Moses, including claiming that
Plato read Moses and the
Nevi'im. Although this assertion is questioned by some recent authors, many philosophers like Aristobulus argued even before the time of Christ that the essentials of Greek philosophy and metaphysics were derived from Jewish sources. In the 2nd century Platonic philosopher Numenius of Apamea echoed this position in his well-known statement "What is Plato but Moses speaking Attic Greek?" Pseudo-Justin starts his analysis of the pagan thinkers by looking at the teachings of the
Milesian school, including
Thales,
Anaximander, and
Anaximenes of Miletus. Together with the Milesians he adds
Heraclitus,
Hippasus,
Anaxagoras, and
Archelaus. He briefly mentions their various theories of "principle[s]" or "first cause[s]" (see
arche); for example, Thales' theory that all matter comes from
water. Next he mentions the theories of
Pythagoras,
Epicurus, and
Empedocles. He concludes that all these
Pre-Socratic philosophers and Epicurus (who was not Pre-Socratic) could not agree, and that this lack of agreement shows the weakness of their philosophy altogether. Heraclitus is listed as coming from the same city as Hippasus—
Metapontum—although he in fact came from
Ephesus. Next he considers Plato and
Aristotle. Despite these two being the most well-regarded of the pagan philosophers, Pseudo-Justin concludes similarly as before: They widely do not agree with each other and are to be criticized for as much. For example, he says that Plato teaches that the human soul has three parts (see
Plato's tripartite theory of soul), while Aristotle teaches that the human soul has only one, reasoning aspect (see
On the Soul). He also maintains that they contradict themselves as well. For example, he claims that Plato says at one time that there are three first causes, but then at another time that there are four. Again, he claims that Plato says that matter is uncreated, but then later contradicts himself and says that it is created. The modern scholarly views on the relationship between Plato's and Aristotle's philosophies are varied and complex. In contrast with the disagreements between all the pagan philosophers, Pseudo-Justin commends the Christian teachers, who, he says, did not "contradict or argue with one another. Instead, without strife or quarrel, they passed on to us the knowledge they had received from God." He includes Moses as the oldest Christian teacher, although Christianity is normally understood as beginning after the life of
Jesus. Many scholars have identified the text as Jewish in nature, on the basis of Pseudo-Justin's strong debt to Jewish thought. Another theory is that it is a particularly superficial reworking of Jewish material for Christian purposes (see
split of early Christianity and Judaism). Pseudo-Justin also quotes and discusses some
Sibylline oracles. He writes that some of these oracles teach the true religion, including
monotheism. Pseudo-Justin's quotations and commentary are an important textual source for these oracles. ==Editions==