Fall of Rome (1849)

Proclamation of Roman Republic On 15 November 1848, Pellegrino Rossi, the Minister of Justice of the Papal government, was assassinated. The following day, liberals in Rome demonstrated in the streets, where various groups called for a democratic government, social reforms, and a declaration of war against the Austrian Empire to liberate territories considered culturally and ethnically Italian (Italia irredenta). On the night of 24 November, Pope Pius IX left Rome disguised as an ordinary priest and went to Gaeta, a fortress in the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies. Before leaving, he allowed the formation of a government led by Archbishop Carlo Emanuele Muzzarelli, to whom he wrote a note prior to departure. He entrusted Muzzarelli with informing the minister Galletti and the other ministers to maintain order, protect the palaces, and ensure the safety of individuals who were unaware of his decision, emphasizing the importance of tranquillity in the city. On 2 February 1849, at a political rally held in the Teatro Apollo, a young Roman ex-priest, the Abbé Arduini, delivered a speech in which he stated that the temporal power of the popes was historically unfounded and politically and religiously illegitimate. The Constitutional Assembly convened on 8 February and proclaimed the Roman Republic after midnight on 9 February. According to Jasper Ridley, when the name of Carlo Luciano Bonaparte, a member for Viterbo, was called, he responded with the words Viva la Repubblica, expressing support for the new republic. The proclamation was also marked by public support for Giuseppe Mazzini as a Roman citizen. ==Prelude==

The Pope requested military assistance from Catholic countries. Saliceti and Montecchi left the Triumvirate; their positions were filled on 29 March by Saffi and Giuseppe Mazzini, the Genoese founder of the journal La Giovine Italia, who had played a central role in the Republic from its beginning. Mazzini sought support among poorer residents by confiscating portions of large Church landholdings and distributing them to peasants. He introduced reforms to prisons and asylums, supported freedom of the press, and promoted secular education, but did not adopt work guarantee programs for the unemployed, having observed the outcome of the National Workshops initiative in France. The government's policies included lower taxes and increased spending, resulting in fiscal expansion and a decline in the value of the currency. Piedmont faced the possibility of Austrian attack, and the Republic's troop movements in the area heightened tensions with Austria, which had the capacity to intervene directly in Rome. Count Joseph Radetzky stated that a short but decisive conflict would ensure long-term stability when declaring war on the Republic. ==Battle==

Initial assualts on Rome In April 1849, France and Austria both had the option to intervene in Rome to suppress the Roman Republic and restore Pope Pius IX, with France acting first. The French legislature approved funding for an expedition on 14 April 1849, officially described as preventing potential Austrian intervention. French president Louis-Napoleon Bonaparte also expected the mission to gain support among French Catholics. The army of Lieutenant-General Charles Oudinot landed at Civitavecchia on 24 April and advanced toward Rome. During the initial phase, Oudinot underestimated local support for the Republic. He attempted to seize Rome from 29 to 30 April but encountered organized resistance led by Giuseppe Garibaldi, and French forces were repelled. Republican forces also repelled attacks from the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies at Palestrina on 8 May and at Velletri on 19 May. On 3 June 1849, French troops under Oudinot launched a second assault on Rome as part of the ongoing conflict with the Roman Republic. The objective was to enter the city and restore papal authority. The defense, led by Giuseppe Garibaldi, mounted sustained resistance against the attack. Combat occurred around the walls and city entrances, and French forces withdrew after sustained fighting. They subsequently established a blockade and laid siege to Rome beginning 3 June 1849, gradually weakening Republican defenses until the fall of the Roman Republic in July 1849. Papal Coalition besieges Rome After several weeks of siege, Garibaldi concluded that Rome could not be held and reached an agreement with Marshal Nicolas Oudinot regarding the surrender of the city. The French were supported by approximately nine thousand Spanish soldiers sent to assist the pope. On 2 July, Garibaldi attempted to lead four thousand volunteers out of Rome toward the Venetian Republic. The group was pursued by French, Austrian, Spanish, and loyalist forces from the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies and the Kingdom of Sardinia. Many of Garibaldi's men were killed or captured before dispersing, though Garibaldi escaped. ==Aftermath==

The French Army entered Rome on 3 July and restored the Holy See's temporal authority. In August, Louis Napoleon issued a manifesto requesting that Pius IX implement reforms including amnesty, administrative secularization, adoption of the Code Napoléon, and a more liberal government. From Gaeta, Pius promised reforms issued motu proprio, presenting them as undertaken on his own initiative. The pope did not return to Rome until April 1850, after assurances regarding French noninterference. In the interim, Rome was governed by a "Red Triumvirate" of cardinals. French troops remained in Rome until their withdrawal at the outbreak of the Franco-Prussian War in 1870, which preceded the capture of Rome and annexation by the Kingdom of Italy. Raffaele De Cesare later argued that the Roman question significantly affected Napoleon III's political position, stating that his support for papal temporal power over two decades was central to its restoration and continued existence. ==Notes==