Brugmansia

'' Brugmansia are large shrubs or small trees, with semi-woody, often many-branched trunks. They can reach heights of . The leaves are alternately arranged along the stems, generally large, long and across, with an entire or coarsely toothed margin, and are often covered with fine hairs. The name "angel's trumpet" refers to the large, pendulous, trumpet-shaped flowers, long and across at the opening. They come in shades of white, yellow, pink, orange, green, or red. Most have a strong, pleasing fragrance that is most noticeable in the evening. Flowers may be single, double, or more. ==Taxonomy==

Linnaeus first classified these plants as part of Datura with his 1753 description of "Datura arborea". Then in 1805, C. H. Persoon transferred them into a separate genus, Brugmansia, named for Dutch naturalist Sebald Justinus Brugmans. Species Currently, there are seven recognized species: These species are then divided into two natural, genetically isolated groups. The section Brugmansia sect. Brugmansia (the warm-growing group) includes the species B. aurea, B. insignis, B. sauveolens, and B. versicolor. The section Brugmansia sect. Sphaerocarpum (the cold group) includes the species B. arborea, B. sanguinea, and B. vulcanicola. First, Brugmansia vulcanicola was said to be a subspecies of B. sanguinea, but this was refuted by Lockwood's former mentor, R. E. Schultes in 1977. Second, Lockwood proposed that the species B. insignis was instead a hybrid of the combination (B. suaveolens × B. versicolor) × B. suaveolens. This was later disproved by crossbreeding experiments done by the Preissels, published in 1997. ==Distribution and habitat==

Brugmansia are native to tropical regions of South America, along the Andes from Venezuela to northern Chile, and also in south-eastern Brazil. ==Ecology==

Most Brugmansia are fragrant in the evenings to attract pollinating moths. One species lacking scent, the red-flowered Brugmansia sanguinea, is exclusively pollinated by the sword-billed hummingbird. Brugmansia have two main stages to their life cycle. In the initial vegetative stage the young seedling grows straight up on usually a single stalk, until it reaches its first main fork at high. It will not flower until after it has reached this fork, and then only on new growth above the fork. Cuttings taken from the lower vegetative region must also grow to a similar height before flowering, but cuttings from the upper flowering region will often flower at a very low height. Brugmansia seed dispersal was probably formerly accomplished by mammalian megafauna, extinct since the Pleistocene. Brugmansia has long been extinct in the wild as their fruits now shrivel on the plants without progeny. They have been maintained in cultivation as a source of psychotropic drugs, as well as for ornamental purposes, following the loss of their evolutionary seed dispersal partner by humans. ==Historical uses==

, 1988. The Urarina use Brugmansia in their rituals. Brugmansia are most often grown today as flowering ornamental plants. Brugmansia contains deliriant hallucinogenic tropane alkaloids (atropine, scopolamine, and hyoscyamine), which cause delirium and hallucinations. Brugmansia species have also traditionally been used in many South American indigenous cultures in medical preparations and as an entheogen in religious and spiritual ceremonies. Medicinally, they have mostly been used externally as part of a poultice, tincture, ointment, or where the leaves are directly applied transdermally to the skin. Traditional external uses have included the treating of aches and pains, dermatitis, orchitis, arthritis, rheumatism, headaches, infections, and as an anti-inflammatory. They have been used internally much more rarely due to the inherent dangers of ingestion. Internal uses, in highly diluted preparations, and often as a portion of a larger mix, have included treatments for stomach and muscle ailments, as a decongestant, to induce vomiting, to expel worms and parasites, and as a sedative. Several South American cultures have used Brugmansia species as a treatment for unruly children, so that they might be admonished directly by their ancestors in the spirit world, and thereby become more compliant. Mixed with maize beer and tobacco leaves, it has been used to drug wives and slaves before they were buried alive with their dead lord. In the Northern Peruvian Andes, shamans (curanderos) traditionally used Brugmansia species for initiation, divination, and black magic rituals. The species that are typically used for these purposes include Brugmansia suaveolens and Brugmansia arborea among others. ==Toxicity==

All parts of Brugmansia are potentially poisonous, with the seeds and leaves being especially dangerous. Brugmansia are rich in scopolamine (hyoscine), hyoscyamine, and several other tropane alkaloids that can lead to anticholinergic toxidrome and delirium. Effects of ingestion can include paralysis of smooth muscles, confusion, tachycardia, dry mouth, constipation, tremors, migraine headaches, poor coordination, delusions, visual and auditory hallucinations, mydriasis, rapid onset cycloplegia, and death. The hallucinogenic effects of Brugmansia were described in the journal Pathology as "terrifying rather than pleasurable". The author Christina Pratt, in An Encyclopedia of Shamanism, says that "Brugmansia induces a powerful trance with violent and unpleasant effects, sickening after effects, and at times temporary insanity". In 1994 in Florida, 112 people were admitted to hospitals after ingesting Brugmansia, leading one municipality to prohibit the purchase, sale, or cultivation of Brugmansia plants. The concentrations of alkaloids in all parts of the plant differ markedly. They even vary with the seasons and the level of hydration, so it is nearly impossible to determine a safe level of alkaloid exposure. Anecdotally, this case demonstrates the tendency for active compounds in Brugmansia plants to easily be transferred to the hands when handling the plant. ==Cultivation==

Brugmansia are easily grown in a moist, fertile, well-drained soil, in sun to part shade, in frost-free climates. They begin to flower in mid to late spring in warm climates and continue into the fall (autumn), often continuing as late as early winter in warm conditions. In cool winters, outdoor plants need protection from frost, but the roots are hardier, and may resprout in late spring. The species from the higher elevations, in B. section Sphaerocarpium, prefer moderate temperatures and cool nights, and may not flower if temperatures are very hot. Most Brugmansia may be propagated easily by rooting cuttings taken from the end of a branch during the summer. Several hybrids and numerous cultivars have been developed for use as ornamental plants. B. × candida is a hybrid between B. aurea and B. versicolor; B. × flava is a hybrid between B. arborea and B. sanguinea; and B. × cubensis and 'Knightii' {{cite web | url = https://www.rhs.org.uk/Plants/56940/Brugmansia-x-candida-Knightii-(d)/Details | title = Brugmansia × candida 'Knightii' ==Gallery==

Image:Angel Trumpets shrub -- Brugmansia suaveolens.jpg| Angel trumpets shrub – Brugmansia suaveolens Image:Brugmansia (detail).jpg|Brugmansia hybrid flower Image:Bundesarchiv Bild 135-KA-02-039, Tibetexpedition, Trichterblume.jpg|Brugmansia suaveolens Image:Angel Trumpets -- Brugmansia suaveolens.jpg|Angel trumpets – Brugmansia suaveolens Image:Brugmansia_tree.jpg|Brugmansia × candida, Mangonui, North Island, New Zealand Image:Brugmansia_vulcanicola.jpg|Brugmansia vulcanicola flower File:Brugmansia_29.jpg|Brugmansia suaveolens flower Image:AngelTrumpet_Mounts_Asit.jpg|Mounts Botanical Garden, West Palm Beach, Florida Image:Brugmansia_x_Candida.jpg |Brugmansia x candida, Berkeley, California, US File:Brugmansia from Nafpaktos, Northern Greece i.jpg|Brugmansia, Nafpaktos, Central Greece File:Methysticodendron amesianum (now Brugmansia x candida ( B. aurea ?) var. ‘Culebra’ ) Kew.jpg|Brugmansia cultivar 'Culebra' (formerly Methysticodendron amesianum) Kew Gardens ==See also==