The four cardinal virtues appeared as a group (sometimes included in larger lists) long before they were given this title.
Hellenistic philosophy Plato associated the four cardinal virtues with the social classes of the ideal city described in
The Republic, and with the faculties of humanity. Plato narrates a discussion of the character of a good city where the following is agreed upon: {{Blockquote|Clearly, then, it will be wise, brave, temperate [literally: healthy-minded], and just.
Temperance was most closely associated with the producing classes, the farmers and craftsmen, to moderate their animal appetites.
Fortitude was assigned to the warrior class, to strengthen their fighting spirit.
Prudence was assigned to the rulers, to guide their reason.
Justice stood above these three to properly regulate the relations among them. Plato sometimes lists holiness (, , ) amongst the cardinal virtues. He especially associates holiness with justice, but leaves their precise relationship unexplained. In Aristotle's
Rhetoric, we read: {{Blockquote|The forms of Virtue are justice, courage, temperance, magnificence, magnanimity, liberality, gentleness, prudence, wisdom. These are expounded fully in the
Nicomachean Ethics III.6-V.2.
Philo of Alexandria, a Hellenistic Jewish philosopher, also recognized the four cardinal virtues as prudence, temperance, courage, and justice. In his writings, he states: These virtues, according to Philo, serve as guiding principles for a virtuous and fulfilling life.
Roman philosophy The Roman philosopher and statesman
Cicero (106-43 BC), like Plato, limits the list to four virtues: {{Blockquote|Virtue may be defined as a habit of mind () in harmony with reason and the order of nature. It has four parts: wisdom (), justice, courage, temperance. Cicero discusses these further in
De Officiis (I, V, and following).
Seneca writes in about justice ( from
Ancient Greek ), self-control ( from Ancient Greek ), practical wisdom ( from Ancient Greek ) and devotion () instead of courage ( from Ancient Greek ). The Roman Emperor
Marcus Aurelius discusses these in Book V:12 of
Meditations and views them as the "goods" that a person should identify in one's own mind, as opposed to "wealth or things which conduce to luxury or prestige". Suggestions of the
Stoic virtues can be found in fragments in the
Diogenes Laertius and
Stobaeus. The Platonist view of the four cardinal virtues is described in
Definitions.
Practical wisdom or prudence () is the perspicacity necessary to conduct personal business and affairs of state. It encompasses the skill to distinguish the beneficial from the detrimental, to understand the attainment of happiness, and to discern the right course of action in every situation. Its antithesis or opposite is the vice of folly.
Justice () is the harmonious alignment of one's inner self and the comprehensive integrity of the soul. It involves fostering sound discipline within each facet of our being, enabling us to live with others and extend the same regard to every individual. Additionally, justice pertains to a state's aptitude to equitably allocate resources based on individuals' deservingness, as determined by their merits. It entails refraining from undue harshness, fostering a universal perception of fairness. Furthermore, it entails embodying the qualities of a law-abiding citizen or member of society, upholding principles of social equality. Justice encompasses the formulation of laws that can be substantiated by valid justifications, leading to a society where actions align with these laws. Moderation or
temperance () is the capacity to temper the indulgence of desires and sensory pleasures within the bounds of what is customary for the individual, aligning only with experiences already familiar to the soul. It encompasses achieving a harmonious equilibrium and exercising disciplined control when it comes to overall pleasure and pain, ensuring that they remain within normal ranges. Moreover, moderation involves cultivating a harmonious relationship and a balanced rule between the soul's governing and being governed aspects. It signifies maintaining a state of natural self-reliance and exercising proper discipline as and when required by the soul. Rational consensus within the soul is essential concerning what merits admiration and what warrants disdain. This approach entails deliberate caution in one's choices, as one's selection navigates between the extremes.
Courage () can be defined as the ability to conquer fear within oneself when action is necessary. It encompasses military confidence, a deep understanding of warfare, and maintaining unwavering beliefs in the face of challenges. It involves self-discipline to overcome fear, obeying wisdom, and facing death boldly. Courage also entails maintaining sound judgment in tough situations, countering hostility, upholding virtues, remaining composed when faced with frightening (or encouraging) discussions and events, and not becoming discouraged. It reflects valuing the rule of law in our daily lives rather than diminishing its importance.
In the Bible In the Hebrew Bible The cardinal virtues are listed in the
deuterocanonical book , which reads: They are also found in other non-canonical scriptures like , which relates:
In the New Testament Wisdom, usually , rather than Prudence (), is discussed extensively in all parts of the
New Testament. It is a major topic of
1 Corinthians 2, where the author discusses how divine teaching and power are greater than worldly wisdom.
Justice (, ) is taught in the gospels, where most translators give it as "righteousness". Plato's word for
Fortitude () is not present in the New Testament, but the virtues of steadfastness (, ) and patient endurance (, ) are praised. Paul exhorts believers to "act like men" (, , ).
Temperance (, Sophrosyne|), usually translated "sobriety," is present in the New Testament, along with self-control (, ). == In Christian tradition ==