. Modern Georgian nationalism emerged in the middle of the 19th century as a reaction to the Russian annexation of fragmented Georgian polities, which terminated their precarious independence, but brought to the Georgians unity under a single authority, relative peace and stability. The first to inspire national revival were aristocratic poets, whose
romanticist writings were imbued with patriotic laments. After a series of ill-fated attempts at revolt, especially, after the failed
coup plot of 1832, the Georgian elites reconciled with the Russian rule, while their calls for national awakening were rechanneled through cultural efforts. In the 1860s, the new generation of Georgian intellectuals, educated at Russian universities and exposed to European ideas, promoted national culture against assimilation by the Imperial center. Led by the literati such as
Ilia Chavchavadze, their program attained more nationalistic colors as the nobility declined and capitalism progressed, further stimulated by the rule of the Russian bureaucracy and economic and demographic dominance of the Armenian middle class in the capital city of
Tbilisi. Chavchavadze and his associates called for the unity of all Georgians and put national interests above class and provincial divisions. Their vision did not envisage an outright revolt for independence, but demanded autonomy within the reformed Russian Empire, with greater cultural freedom, promotion of the Georgian language, and support for Georgian educational institutions and the
national church, whose independence had been suppressed by the Russian government. Despite their advocacy of ethnic culture and demographic grievances over Russian and Armenian dominance in Georgia's urban centers, a program of the early Georgian nationalists was inclusive and preferred non-confrontational approach to inter-ethnic issues. Some of them, such as
Niko Nikoladze, envisaged the creation of a free, decentralized, and self-governing federation of the Caucasian peoples based on the principle of ethnically proportional representation. The Georgian social-democrats were very active in
all-Russian socialist movement and after its split in 1905 sided with the
Menshevik faction adhering to relatively liberal ideas of their Western European colleagues. Meanwhile, in Geneva, Georgian emigres formed "Free Georgia" group, which published the newspaper with the same name and openly called for the Georgian independence. It often featured the articles of
Socialist-Federalists and
National Democrats, two major Georgian nationalist groups. In one of its issues in 1914, it read: == First Georgian republic ==