Every language has a word expressing
good in the sense of "having the right or desirable quality" (
ἀρετή) and
bad in the sense "undesirable". A sense of
moral judgment and a distinction "right and wrong, good and bad" are
cultural universals.
Plato and Aristotle Although the history of the origin of the use of the concept and meaning of "good" are diverse, the notable discussions of
Plato and
Aristotle on this subject have been of significant historical effect. The first references that are seen in Plato's
The Republic to the
Form of the Good are within the conversation between
Glaucon and
Socrates (454c–d). When trying to answer such difficult questions pertaining to the definition of
justice, Plato identifies that we should not "introduce every form of difference and sameness in nature" instead we must focus on "the one form of sameness and difference that was relevant to the particular ways of life themselves”, which is the form of the Good. This form is the basis for understanding all other forms, it is what allows us to understand everything else. Through the conversation between Socrates and Glaucon (508a–c) Plato analogizes the form of the Good with the sun as it is what allows us to see things. Here, Plato describes how the sun allows for sight. But he makes a very important distinction, "sun is not sight", but it is "the cause of sight itself". As the sun is in the visible realm, the form of Good is in the
intelligible realm. It is "what gives truth to the things known and the power to know to the knower". It is not only the "cause of knowledge and truth, it is also an object of knowledge". Plato identifies how the form of the Good allows for the cognizance to understand such difficult concepts as justice. He identifies knowledge and truth as important, but through Socrates (508d–e) says, "good is yet more prized". He then proceeds to explain that "although the good is not being" it is "superior to it in rank and power", it is what "provides for knowledge and truth" (508e). In contrast to Plato, Aristotle discusses the Forms of Good in critical terms several times in both of his major surviving ethical works, the
Eudemian and
Nicomachean Ethics. Aristotle argues that Plato's Form of the Good does not apply to the physical world, for Plato does not assign "goodness" to anything in the existing world. Because Plato's Form of the Good does not explain events in the physical world, humans have no reason to believe that the Form of the Good exists and the Form of the Good thereby, is irrelevant to human ethics. Plato and Aristotle were not the first contributors in ancient Greece to the study of the "good" and discussion preceding them can be found among the pre-Socratic philosophers. In Western civilisation, the basic meanings of κακός and ἀγαθός are "bad, cowardly" and "good, brave, capable", and their absolute sense emerges only around 400 BC, with
Pre-Socratic philosophy, in particular
Democritus. Morality in this absolute sense solidifies in the dialogues of
Plato, together with the emergence of
monotheistic thought (notably in
Euthyphro, which ponders the concept of piety (
τὸ ὅσιον) as a moral absolute). The idea is further developed in
Late Antiquity by
Neoplatonists,
Gnostics, and
Church Fathers.
Ancient western religions (or ferou), one of the primary symbols of Zoroastrianism, believed to be the depiction of a
Fravashi (a guardian spirit) Aside from ancient Greek studies of the "good", more than twenty-five hundred years ago in the eastern part of ancient
Persia a religious philosopher called
Zoroaster simplified the
pantheon of early Iranian deities into
two opposing forces:
Ahura Mazda (
Illuminating Wisdom) and
Angra Mainyu (
Destructive Spirit) that were in conflict. For the western world, this idea developed into a religion that spawned many
sects, some of which embraced an extreme
dualistic belief that the
material world should be shunned and the
spiritual world should be embraced. Gnostic ideas influenced many
ancient religions, which teach that
gnosis (variously interpreted as
enlightenment,
salvation,
liberation, or "oneness with God") may be reached by practising philanthropy to the point of personal poverty,
sexual abstinence (as far as possible for
hearers and totally for
initiates), and diligently searching for
wisdom by helping others. This development from the relative or habitual to the absolute is evident in the terms
ethics and
morality as well, both being derived from terms for "regional custom", Greek ἦθος and Latin
mores, respectively (see also
siðr).
Medieval period in western cultures ) Medieval
Christian philosophy was founded on the work of Bishop
Augustine of Hippo and theologian
Thomas Aquinas, who understood evil in terms of
Biblical infallibility and
Biblical inerrancy, as well as the influences of Plato and Aristotle, in their appreciation of the concept of the
Summum bonum. Silent contemplation was the route to appreciation of the Idea of the Good. Many medieval Christian theologians both broadened and narrowed the basic concept of
Good and Evil until it came to have several, sometimes complex definitions such as: • a personal preference or subjective judgment regarding any issue that might earn
praise or
punishment from the
religious authorities • religious obligation arising from
Divine law leading to
sainthood or
damnation • a generally accepted
cultural standard of behaviour that might enhance group
survival or wealth •
natural law or behaviour that induces strong emotional reaction •
statute law imposing a legal
duty Modern concepts Kant A significant enlightenment context for studying the "good" has been its significance in the study of "
the good, the true, and the beautiful" as found in
Immanuel Kant and other Enlightenment philosophers and religious thinkers. These discussions were undertaken by Kant, particularly in the context of his
Critique of Practical Reason.
Rawls John Rawls's book
A Theory of Justice prioritized social arrangements and goods, based on their contribution to
justice. Rawls defined justice as
fairness, especially in distributing social goods, defined fairness in terms of procedures, and attempted to prove that just institutions and lives are good, if every rational individual's goods are considered fairly. Rawls's crucial invention was the
original position, a procedure in which one tries to make objective moral decisions by refusing to let personal facts about oneself enter one's moral calculations. == Opposition to evil ==