Tio Kingdom

The environment consists of expansive grasslands on a plateau, with small forest in some places. The eastern Teke (Tio proper) inhabited this plateau near Pool Malebo, with the western Teke on lower ground in the basins of the Nduou River (a tributary to the Upper Niari River) and the Foulakary and Djoué rivers (tributaries to the Lower Congo River). The plateau is covered by Hyparrhenia, Rhynchelytrum, Landolphia, and Imperata grasses, as well as the odd Hymenocardia acida or Annona tree, also being home to lions. ==History==

Origins Tio tradition holds that they have always inhabited the grassland plains; from neighbouring groups reporting that the Tio (eastern Teke) were already there when they arrived, it is known for certain that they were there from at least the 13th century. While Tio tradition also says that their kingdom has always existed, Jan Vansina wrote that the political system of squires/chiefs ( or ) who governed domains () likely evolved into kingship and statehood, and that the (king) was likely initially based on the northern plains. He considered the king to have derived authority from mystical prowess, with which he used to give titles to lords and squires and receive tribute. This is evidenced by a series of six anvils dedicated to the king and five lords, who were all from the north, located near the Falls of Lefini where Nkwe Mbali (the national nature spirit) was believed to reside. The association of kingship with smithing is believed to have originated among the Tio before spreading to the kingdoms of Loango and Kongo. In 1491 the (Kongo's king) asked the Portuguese for help against the Tio. The earliest written mention of an ' was of a "Mukoko Ansiko" in 1507.' The Tio continued to war with Kongo throughout the 16th century, killing at least one of its manikongos (Henrique I in 1568 and possibly Bernardo I in 1567). At the same time the Jaga invaded Kongo from the east, disrupting trade. Written records from this time mention multiple Tio kingdoms, possibly indicating a degree of decentralisation. They bordered Mwene Muji to the northeast. Kongo traditions claim the '''' sent them tribute. After being expelled from Kongo in the early-17th century, the Jaga moved north, settled near Loango, and overran the western Teke. and royal authority In the 17th century there were two main trade routes from Pool Malebo: one from the Vili in Loango and one from the Portuguese in Luanda. Around 1700, following an influx of wealth from the Loango route, (boxes containing charms which legitimised power) were introduced among lords on the northern plains after diffusing from Abala, creating an ideology of power detached from the king. A lord titled (based just north of the ) is said to have obtained them, and gave them to high lord , who was based at Ntsaa (south of the Nkéni River). He then sold and distributed them among his (vassal lords), diminishing the king's authority. Tradition portrays as wealthy and powerful, and he was said to have owned lots of (luxury brass objects from Loango). His hunters (which included Tswa) hunted elephants for ivory, and were sold into slavery if they came back empty-handed. He regularly declared "war at the limits" on other lords in order to accrue ivory and slaves, and tradition recounts that he exploited every possible source of income. Using his wealth, retinue, muskets, and slaves, '''' came to be (leader) of all lords. On the Mbe plains in 1881, a dispute arose between '''' Ikukuri and the over their father's inheritance. War broke out, and ' was forced to flee to the Bobangi, coming to side with Stanley and the Association. ' Opontaba sided with ' while ' Iloo leant support to Ikukuri and . Opontaba came to have good relations with the Association, causing Ngaliema to attempt to blockade Leopoldville in 1883. The French and de Brazza returned, with whom Iloo ratified the treaty in April 1884, to which Opontaba and '''' were forced to agree, signifying a political victory for Iloo. The French brought copious amounts of gifts for the king, with lords receiving half of his amount; Brazzaville was founded in May. In response the Association pressured Opontaba to resume his hostility, and the French spread rumours of murder plots to the king. The French sent a garrison to Iloo's Mbe while the Association sent firearms to Opontaba. The result of the Berlin Conference in 1885 neutralised the Franco-Belgian rivalry. Over the course of the next few years the French and the Association expanded the remit of their administrations, no longer needing their African allies. The Europeans became more violent and burnt down the Humbu's Lemba, the Bobangi's Mpila, and Ngaliema's Ntamo, as the Tio came to submit and focus on commerce. From 1888, the French began granting brass collars, a Tio symbol of rule, to lords at the Pool, and enacted taxation. The Mbe plains were ignored by the French, and the situation there at this time are unknown, other than that the hostility between Iloo and Opontaba dissipated. Iloo died in 1892. While kingship later returned, no future kings underwent , the king's installation ritual. Though Ngalifourou opposed nominations to the throne, '''' Mundzwaani was instated in 1928. He was deposed by the French and a series of short reigns followed, as the king's authority was reduced to less than that of a and Ngalifourou remained dominant. Her death in 1956 changed this dynamic, as the new ' could not play the same role. The French began giving kings a salary, car, and residence, though their authority remained muted. Likely because of this, a coalition of lords that included ' formed against the king, ' Ntsaalu. The Republic of Congo gained its independence in 1960. In 1964 the coalition of lords deposed Ntsaalu, replacing him with ' Iloo II, though this remained minor in Congolese politics. He signed the 1995 Pact for Peace after the country's civil war, and died in 1998. The (Queen Mother) appoints the ruler. The current monarch is , ruling since 2021. ==Government==

Kingship The state was headed by an (king). His first wife was titled , and his second ''''. was head of the royal court along with a high lord titled . The king resided in his royal enclosure () in the capital (for which he also acted as its headman), and the settlement was guarded, as were the roads and rivers leading there. Some lords are also known to have lived in the capital, such as those titled , , , , and . The king used royal messengers to govern, who were greatly respected. Succession was limited to those who were part of the king's kin (), specifically patrilineal kin, and had ancestors from the sacred forests () of Ndua, Mbe aNdzieli, or Ilde. The successor was chosen by consensus between lords ' and ', and and ' (who were of ', ie.vassal chiefs). Administration Authority could only be held by members of the king's kin (baamukaana lilimpu, "those of the kindred of authority"), comprising an aristocracy. The kingdom was divided into territories (ntsii), which were delineated by patches of forest (idzwa) and governed by squires/chiefs (ngántsii or mpfõ antsii). A squire's authority was believed to depend on their relationship with their local nkira, which had a dedicated shrine in front of the squire's house. Squires were regarded as "wives" (ie. vassals) of the king, like how these nkira were regarded as "wives" of Nkwe Mbali. Decision-making was conducted in palavers (ndoo, meaning "words"), which were, depending on the context, courts, councils, or gatherings of kinsmen. Most criminal cases within houses (ndzo) were adjudicated by the mpfõ andzo, and cases between ndzo were attempted to be resolved by the respective mpfõ andzos, village leaders, and squire before going to court (where fines (iã) were paid). Courts were headed by lords or squires, and parties chose an amieene councillor to represent them. Parties entered into huddles (ipfuuna), often followed by sequential offers/claims which iterated towards an agreement. Cases could result in enslavements. Executions were done rarely (dependent on the power of the lord), publicly, and were often unexpected by the criminal. ==Economy==

Local economies' food systems consisted of arable and pastoral agriculture, fishing, and hunting and gathering. The three types of farming were: large fields in the savannah (ncio) which grew yams (gradually replaced by cassava from the 17th century) Domesticated animals included goats, chickens, and dogs (who assisted in hunting), as well as pigs, pigeons, and ducks nearer Pool Malebo. Most meat came from communal hunts, most often of antelopes. The import of guns allowed hunting of buffalo and elephants. Traps targeted rats, warthogs, and birds such as cranes and guinea fowl. Gathering was important for food, medicine, and construction. Fishing was done with nets, traps, spears, and rods. Mediums of exchange included Mbula shells (nji), copper ingots (ngiele), lead ingots, and lengths of cloth (ibuunu for imported cloth, ntaa for raphia cloth), Trades included smithing, pottery, weaving, wood-working, basket-making, and tattooing. Construction, cooking, and leather-making were more popularly undertaken. Some other occupations included singers and musicians, snake charmers, and medicine men. Weaving was done by men using looms. All iron smelting ceased around the late-18th century in favour of imports. Tio located near rivers produced pottery, which the Tio of the grassland plains imported in exchange for locally-produced raphia cloth. People were usually sold into slavery by their mother's brother if needed, or they sold themselves if unable to pay a fine. They could also be sent as compensation for a murder (mbuma) or captured in war. Slaves served houses and did various tasks. Masters assisted their slaves in finding their own livelihood, and paid for food, housing, and sometimes bridewealth if they were to get married. Trade The Tio participated in an elaborate trade network linking the communities of the Atlantic coast to those along the Congo River, and those along its tributaries north of Pool Malebo. Prior to the arrival of the Portuguese in the 15th century, the Tio likely exported baskets, mats, and pots in exchange for similar goods. By the 16th century, the Tio regularly exported slaves (both criminals and free-men) for a high enough price, such that Ansiku (the Kikongo term for the Tio) became a category of slave in Brazil (although it likely included non-Tio slaves from the same market). Slaves were sold on the presumption that they would be treated the same as the Tio treated their own slaves. In the 17th century there were two trade routes to the Pool; one from Loango where raphia cloth was used as currency, and one from Luanda where nzimbu was used (both were used at the Pool). Goods such as muskets and gunpowder were imported. Caravans from both Loango (led by the Vili) and Luanda (led by Portuguese pombeiros) relied on slave carriers. By the turn of the 18th century the Lower Kasai north of the Pool was being integrated into the long-distance network, resulting in an influx of slaves and ivory. In the early-19th century, the long-distance trade mainly consisted of slaves in exchange for European imports. From 1840, exports of slaves were rapidly replaced by that of ivory, with the Tio linking suppliers and coastal communities and controlling the ivory trade. Other goods were traded more locally. The three trading centres were located among the Laadi in the west, Ntsei near the Lower Nkeni in the north, and Pool Malebo in the east. Caravans predominated in the dry season, and canoes operated all-year round. The Tio controlled the trading centres near Pool Malebo, namely Mfwa and Mpila (now Brazzaville) and Ntamo and Ntsaasa (now Kinshasa). Iron objects came to be imported from further up the Congo, neutering the local smithing industry. Drums and boats were also imported, as well as unũ (luxury brass objects from Loango), and slaves largely came from the Lower Congo. Goods imported from the coast included European cloths, guns, gunpowder, crockery, mirrors, beads and shells, candles, and brass goods. Goods exported by the Tio of the grassland plains included ivory, groundnuts, slaves, raphia, goats, fowls, buffalo, tobacco, rubber, produce, and baskets. ==Culture and society==

Terms for kinship groups included ndzo ("house") for matrilineal lineages (usually a common ancestor two generations back from the oldest living member), and ibuuru for bilateral kin (organised by one having two names deriving from matrilineal and patrilineal grandparents, and in the far past commonalities between the sacred forests (idzwa) one's ancestors were thought to be from). People also had a set of foods to avoid (ngili) inherited from their bilateral descent, with non-adherence believed to cause mange. Headed by the oldest male (mpfõ andzo, "chief of the house"), ndzo could split up if too big, formalised by two parties holding a banana leaf which would then be cut by the local chief and validated by diviners. Concerns surrounded members bewitching one another, which often started feuds, the threat of which fostered functionality of the unit. Accusations of witchcraft were adjudicated by poison trials (nkei). Seniors were called taara and tooke, for men and women respectfully, which was also used to refer to the king. The ideal state of being was ngolo, where one is very fortunate and stress-free. Members of opposite sexes and of the same generation, and grandmothers and grandchildren, formed joking relationships. Settlements comprised the kin of its leader or founder (wookuru, the headman), and their populations (ula) numbered under 500. The wookuru could formalise their position by obtaining an ibili charm made by the state's high priest (Lipie). Villages centred on a courtyard by the headman's house, larger settlements being divided into wards. Chiefs had more wives and therefore more kin, leading to bigger settlements, however when leaders died either someone younger would manage to keep some of it together or it would break up and people would found new settlements. Lifestyles differed depending on whether the settlement was on a river or the grassland plains, and the most common occupations for men were trading and fishing. Water was scarce on the sparsely populated plateau due to the terrain and lack of rivers there, which the Tio solved by using eaves to direct rainwater into large pots. The plateau was also absent of mosquitos, meaning malaria and sleeping sickness was rare there. However this was not the case for Tio living along the Congo channel near Malebo Pool. Trade was dependent on weather, as caravans were hampered by winds and high water. At the Pool hippopotami were hunted. Families were polygynous, although few had more than two wives other than the king. Women worked on plantations together, fostering strong female solidarity, while, according to one of Jan Vansina's informants, men did "nothing". The Lipie led the cult of Nkwe Mbali (the national nkira, for which one day a week was dedicated) at Mba at the Falls of the Lefini, and he made ibili charms from objects washed up at the sacred falls. Evil was believed to be caused by spirits called apfu, and illness and death caused by witchcraft which was undertaken by disguised witches (ngeiloolo). They were thought to exploit friction between kin in order to frame one party. Powerful figures were associated with witchcraft, and the king was believed to have killed 12 people with it to come to rule, being seen as the "epitome of witchcraft". Accused witches (only men) undertook poison trials, which were weaponised by political rivals. There were various types of diviner (ngda vaa), differentiated by their methods. They were responsible for healing, divining, and accusing, making them powerful and highly influential. Healers (ngàà waa libuu) were more common, and healing wasn't limited just to diviners. Some specialised in certain illnesses or remedies, knowledge usually learnt from family members. Remedies included drugs (imiõ), recovery charms (kaa), protective charms (inkiele), and fortune charms (osel’beene). The term ngaa referred to diviners, healers, and rainmakers. == Military ==

The king relied on the armies of his lords, which consisted of people from their settlements and slaves, as well as forces belonging to the lords' nkani (vassal squires or lesser lords). Parties to war gained allies by paying village headmen to mobilise men from their settlements, similar to mercenaries. Armies would only march when they deemed their numbers sufficient. Bows and arrows were gradually replaced by firearms from the 16th century. Internal wars usually developed out of feuds between groups. Feuds consisted of ambushes, whereas war consisted of conflict between large groups led by squires or lords. Restrained conflicts (mvulu ondil antsii) were between villages of a single domain, essentially a collective duel which the squire would then judge. Unrestrained wars tended to involve lords and the king. Feuds often originated as disputes over bridewealth (litsũ), accusations of witchcraft, or a runaway slave, while wars were usually between competing chiefs. Tio concepts of war differed from European ones; advantages were rarely pressed, and damage was limited to avert suffering similar attacks, with campaigns serving as demonstrations of power. == List of kings ==

The following is a list of kings documented by Jan Vansina. He mentions two names, "Ngeileelie" and "Ngoolua", who may have ruled in between Pieele and Iloo I. Names and dates after Iloo II are derived from news reports. ==See also==