Origins The city of
Alexandria was the capital of Roman Egypt and one of the largest and most influential cities of the
Roman Empire, distinguished by its cosmopolitan population, including Greeks, Egyptians, and a substantial Jewish community. The history of the Patriarchate of Alexandria is closely linked with the development of early Christianity and includes some of the most influential figures among the
Church Fathers, particularly
Athanasius and
Cyril, who played decisive roles at the
ecumenical councils of
Nicaea (325) and
Ephesus (431), respectively. According to ecclesiastical tradition,
Mark the Evangelist founded the Church of Alexandria around AD 43, having been sent by the apostles
Peter and
Paul during the reign of the emperor
Claudius. Later traditions indicate that Mark traveled to Rome and northern Italy before returning to Alexandria, where he was eventually martyred, possibly during anti-Christian unrest. According to
Eusebius of Caesarea and later hagiographical traditions, his death involved being dragged through the streets of the city. The earliest Christian converts in Egypt were primarily drawn from the Hellenized Jewish population of Alexandria. However, Christianity rapidly expanded among the native Egyptian population, particularly in the Nile Valley. Evidence of this early expansion includes
papyri from Oxyrhynchus (Bahnasa), as well as early Coptic translations of the
Gospel of John, which date to the 2nd century. The growth of Christianity in Egypt was influenced by broader social and political conditions. Roman administration, established after the conquest of Egypt in 30 BC, imposed a highly centralized system of taxation and governance that placed significant burdens on the local population. Within this context, Christianity offered both a religious alternative and a framework for communal identity that transcended ethnic and social divisions. By the end of the 2nd century, Christian communities were firmly established throughout Egypt. The symbol of the cross began to gain prominence among Alexandrian Christians, particularly within the emerging Coptic tradition. Earlier symbolic forms, such as the
Chi Rho, were also used, especially in imperial contexts associated with
Constantine the Great.
Development Alexandria rapidly became one of the most important intellectual centers of early Christianity. The Catechetical School of Alexandria emerged as a leading institution for theological education, attracting scholars from across the Mediterranean world. Among its most prominent teachers were
Clement of Alexandria and
Origen, whose writings had a profound influence on Christian theology. Origen, in particular, developed an allegorical method of scriptural interpretation and contributed significantly to early doctrinal formulation. At the same time, Alexandria became a center for diverse theological movements.
Gnostic teachers such as
Basilides,
Carpocrates, and
Valentinus were active in the city, presenting alternative interpretations of Christian doctrine. These teachings were opposed by church authorities, who sought to define orthodoxy and maintain doctrinal unity. Monasticism also developed in Egypt during this period and became one of the defining features of Alexandrian Christianity. Figures such as
Anthony the Great and
Pachomius established models of ascetic life that spread throughout the Christian world. During the episcopate of
Heraclas (231–248), the bishops of Alexandria adopted the title "
Pope" (Greek:
pappas), reflecting their growing authority within the Christian world. The 4th century was marked by the Arian controversy, initiated by the Alexandrian presbyter
Arius, who argued that the Son was subordinate to the Father. This teaching was condemned at the
Council of Nicaea (325), convened by
Constantine the Great.
Athanasius of Alexandria emerged as a central defender of Nicene orthodoxy and played a crucial role in shaping Trinitarian doctrine. His repeated exiles during the controversy reflect the political as well as theological dimensions of the conflict. Alexandria’s influence extended beyond Egypt. In the 4th century, Christianity was established in the
Kingdom of Aksum (modern
Ethiopia and
Eritrea) under the leadership of
Frumentius, who was consecrated bishop by
Athanasius.
Schism and late antiquity and
John the Almoner, Patriarchs of Alexandria The 5th century brought profound theological divisions within the Christian world. The
Council of Chalcedon (451) defined Christ as having two natures, divine and human, in one person. This definition was rejected by many Christians in Egypt, who adhered to
Miaphysite theology. The refusal of Patriarch
Dioscorus I of Alexandria to accept Chalcedonian doctrine led to his deposition and the establishment of a rival patriarch. As a result, the Church of Alexandria split into two parallel hierarchies: • The majority, composed largely of native Egyptians (
Copts), formed what became known as the
Coptic Orthodox Church. • A minority, primarily Greek-speaking and aligned with imperial authority, formed the Chalcedonian (Greek Orthodox) Patriarchate of Alexandria. These Chalcedonian Christians were often called "
Melkites", a term derived from the Semitic word for "king", indicating their loyalty to the
Byzantine emperor. The division had profound social, cultural, and political consequences, reinforcing distinctions between the Greek-speaking elite and the Egyptian population. Over time, the Coptic Church became closely associated with Egyptian identity. During the 6th and early 7th centuries, tensions between Chalcedonian and non-Chalcedonian communities were exacerbated by imperial policies, including attempts by emperors such as
Justinian I to enforce doctrinal unity.
Persian and Arab conquest in 500 AD. In 619, Egypt was conquered by the
Sasanian Empire, an event that disrupted Byzantine control and weakened the position of the Chalcedonian Church. Although Byzantine rule was briefly restored, the region was soon conquered by Arab Muslim forces between 639 and 642. The Arab conquest marked a turning point in the history of Christianity in Egypt. The Chalcedonian patriarch, closely associated with Byzantine authority, lost political support, while the Coptic Church, which had been marginalized under Byzantine rule, was relatively better positioned under the new administration. Under Islamic rule, Christians were recognized as
dhimmi communities and were allowed to practice their religion in exchange for paying the
jizya tax. However, over time, the Greek Orthodox community declined significantly in both numbers and influence. By the early 7th century, only about 300,000 of Egypt’s six million inhabitants belonged to the Greek Orthodox Church, while the majority adhered to the
Coptic Church. During the early Islamic period, the Greek patriarchate experienced a prolonged interruption, and its institutional structure weakened considerably. Many churches passed into the hands of the Coptic community.
Medieval period to Empress
Maria Alexandrovna From the 8th to the 15th centuries, the Greek Orthodox Patriarchate of Alexandria remained a small community with limited influence. Its leadership was often influenced by the
Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople, reflecting dependence on the Byzantine ecclesiastical world. Despite the formal break between Eastern and Western Christianity in the
East–West Schism of 1054, relations between Alexandria and Rome did not immediately cease. Contacts continued during the
Crusades, when cooperation between Greek and Latin Christians was occasionally necessary. At times, Greek patriarchs permitted Latin clergy to minister to their communities, and Alexandrian representatives participated in broader ecclesiastical councils. However, tensions increased following the establishment of Latin patriarchates in the East. Attempts at reunification, particularly at the
Council of Florence (1439), were ultimately unsuccessful, especially after the fall of Constantinople in 1453, which further isolated the Alexandrian Patriarchate from both Western and Byzantine support. During the 13th–14th centuries, most Patriarchs of Alexandria were of Greek origin. Many of them resided in
Constantinople for extended periods and only rarely appeared in Egypt, while actively participating in the ecclesiastical life of Byzantium. The Alexandrian Church possessed almost no independent sources of income in Egypt and therefore remained in a chronically difficult financial situation, relying primarily on support from other Eastern patriarchs and assistance from Orthodox states.
Diaspora growth in the 19th century in
Cairo In the 19th century Orthodoxy in Africa began to grow again. One thing that changed this in the 19th century was the Orthodox diaspora. People from
Greece,
Syria and
Lebanon, in particular, went to different parts of Africa, and some established Orthodox Churches. Many Greeks also settled in Alexandria from the 1840s and Orthodoxy began to flourish there again, and schools and printing presses were established. For a while there was some confusion, especially outside Egypt. As happened in other places, Orthodox immigrants would establish an ethnic "community", which would try to provide a church, school, sporting and cultural associations. They would try to get a priest for the community in the place they had emigrated from, and there was some confusion about which bishops were responsible for these priests. Eventually, in the 1920s it was agreed that all Orthodox churches in Africa would be under the jurisdiction of the Patriarchate of
Alexandria, and so Africa has managed to avoid the jurisdictional confusion that has prevailed in places like America and
Australia. In the early 20th century, the Greek Orthodox Patriarchate of Alexandria in Egypt had approximately 100,000 adherents. Of these, around 63,000 were ethnic Greeks, while the remaining 37,000 were Arab Orthodox Christians. The Greek missions to African outposts followed Greek-speaking settlers, as with the missions to America and Australia, and still provide cultural links to Greece and the Greek patriarchy in
Egypt. , who played a significant role in the spread of Orthodox Christianity in Uganda During the early 20th century, several African-initiated Christian movements emerged in response to colonial missionary structures and local religious conditions. Some of these groups came into contact with the
African Orthodox Church, an Afro-American church founded in 1918 in the United States within the context of
Marcus Garvey’s movement. Despite its name, the African Orthodox Church had no connection with the Eastern Orthodox Church and was a Protestant denomination. In 1932, a bishop of this church traveled to Uganda and ordained
Ruben Spartas Mukasa and one of his associates as priests of the African Orthodox Church. A few years later, however, Mukasa and his followers chose to align with the Greek Orthodox Patriarchate of Alexandria. Mukasa later traveled to
Alexandria and was ordained by the patriarch. After this shift, the African Orthodox Church lost its presence in Uganda. The
1952 Egyptian coup d'état which brought the
Arab nationalist government of
Gamal Abdel Nasser was a turning point for the Orthodox Church in Egypt as increasing xenophobic attitudes of the
pan-Arabist Egyptian Muslims due to events like nationalisation of industries (that were largely owned by non-Muslim foreigners) and dispute over the
status of the
Suez Canal precipitated into
large-scale exodus of
local Greeks. Rise of
Islamism in Egypt, spearheaded by the
Muslim Brotherhood, after Egypt's defeat in the
Six Day War, also hastened the Exodus of Greek Christians. In the 1950s, however, the Orthodox Church in Kenya suffered severe oppression at the hands of the
British colonial authorities during the
Mau Mau Uprising. Most of the clergy were put in concentration camps, and churches and schools were closed. Only the Cathedral in Nairobi (which had a largely Greek membership) remained open. Archbishop
Makarios III of
Cyprus preached an anti-colonialist sermon at the cathedral on his way home from exile, and this led to friendship between him and the leader of the anti-colonial struggle in Kenya,
Jomo Kenyatta. After Kenya became independent in 1963 the situation eased, and the Greek-speaking
Church of Cyprus helped to get the presence of the Greek Orthodox Church in Kenya once more, building a seminary and sending missionary teachers.
Late 20th-early 21st century at the Monastery of St. Savvas in Alexandria In recent years, a considerable
missionary effort was enacted by Pope
Petros VII. During his seven years as
patriarch (1997–2004), he worked tirelessly to spread the Orthodox Christian
faith in
Arab nations and throughout
Africa, raising up native
clergy and encouraging the use of local languages in the liturgical life of the church. Particularly sensitive to the nature of Christian expansion into
Muslim countries, he worked to promote mutual understanding and respect between Orthodox Christians and Muslims. He also worked to improve ecumenical relations with the
Coptic Orthodox Church, signing a joint declaration allowing intermarriage and setting the stage for improved relations between the two ancient patriarchates. His efforts were ended as the result of a helicopter crash on September 11, 2004, in the
Aegean Sea near
Greece, killing him and several other clergy, including Bishop
Nectarios of Madagascar, another bishop with a profound missionary vision. The metropolitans and bishops of this expanding church remain overwhelmingly of Greek or Cypriot origin. The current
primate of the Greek Church of Alexandria is
Theodoros II, Pope and Patriarch of Alexandria and all Africa.
2019 schism with Moscow On 27 December 2019 the
Russian Orthodox Church officially cut ties with the Eastern Orthodox Patriarchate in Alexandria over the latter's recognition of the
Orthodox Church of Ukraine, which is rejected by the Russian Orthodox Church and several other Orthodox churches. This was done after
Theodore II announced support for the OCU. The
Holy Synod of the Russian Orthodox Church noted that it remains in communion with clerics of the Alexandria church who reject Theodore II's decision.
Ordination of women In 2016, the Holy Synod of the Greek Orthodox Patriarchate of Alexandria voted to reinstate the
deaconess; in the following year, it ordained six subdeaconesess in the
Democratic Republic of Congo. In 2024 the Patriarchate ordained its first deaconess,
Angelic Molen, in
Zimbabwe, making her the first female deacon or deaconess in the modern history of the Eastern Orthodox Church. Women had been ordained as deacons or deaconesses in the
Byzantine Church through the 9th century CE after which the practice fell into disuse. ==Offikialoi of the Throne==