Archaic period in Mesoamerica

During the Archaic period, Mesoamerican peoples slowly changed from being nomadic hunter-gatherers to semi-sedentary or sedentary foragers and farmers. Based on research at sites on Mexico's gulf coast, central highlands, and coasts, it seems that people began settling in constructed, permanent villages between 3000 and 1800 BCE. These early villages are associated with the construction of perishable structures, use of agriculture, and participation in trade, especially obsidian trade. The earliest examples of this change are in temporary, seasonal shelters, such as Guilá Naquitz. Guilá Naquitz is a rock shelter in the Valley of Oaxaca that was occupied at least six times between 8000 and 6500 BCE by a largely nomadic band. Another rock shelter, El Gigante rock shelter in the Southern Highlands of Honduras, was occupied seasonally by largely mobile peoples in the Early and Middle Archaic periods. Based on the presence of specific plants, the rock shelter was inhabited during the wet season from July to September, then in the Archaic period, around 4700 BCE, from May to October. The site of Colha and nearby swamps, such as Cobweb Swamp and Pulltrouser Swamp, show evidence of permanent settlement by 3000 BCE. Actun Halal, a rock shelter in Belize, was occupied as early as 2400 to 2130 BCE. Permanent villages are seen even later in the Valley of Oaxaca by 2000 BCE and in the Valley of Tehuacán by 1500 BCE. As agriculture developed, the population increased and settlements expanded into more marginal, less resource-rich areas. == Development of agriculture ==

Increased reliance on domesticated plants and agriculture was gradual. Archaic peoples increased their use of domesticated plants, but still relied predominantly on foraging wild plants and hunting wild animals. The earliest forms of horticulture and beginnings of domestication were likely versions of "dooryard horticulture" in which Archaic peoples used small plots nearby residential locations to plant and nurture a variety of plant species. As agriculture intensified and domesticated crops grew in importance, Archaic peoples began using slash-and-burn (also known as swidden) agriculture to clear large areas of land further from residential areas. Paleoecological evidence, such as increased charcoal levels, decreased tree pollen levels, and increased maize pollen levels, indicates that maize and other crops were grown by slash-and-burn agriculture as early as 7300 BCE in the Central Balsas region and Caribbean coast of Mexico. Later in the Archaic period and into the Preclassic, Mesoamerican peoples began adapting different agricultural methods, such as terracing, raised fields, and crop rotation, and using slash-and-burn methods less exclusively. As people became more sedentary, they became more reliant on particular plants. In addition, molecular evidence indicates that maize was domesticated once in the Balsas region, then spread to other nearby regions. Maize appears along the Chiapas coast by 3000 BCE, likely spread by trade. Maize is also identified in the Mirador Basin nearby Nakbe in northern Guatemala by 2600 BCE and at Actun Halal in Central Belize by 2210 BCE. Like maize, squash also was domesticated once then spread through trade, but other crops appear to have been domesticated multiple times by different groups of Mesoamerican peoples. Bottle gourd (Lagenaria siceraria) also appears to have been domesticated around this time in the same area based on dated remains at the same site. == Stone tools ==

Stone tool technologies, materials, and uses adapted and diversified during the Archaic period, especially in the Northern Belize Chert-Bearing Zone (NBCBZ) around the site of Colha. NBCNZ chert, also known as Colha chert, is incredibly high quality and distinct from chert originating in other regions. Colha chert became a common and important material for stone tools beginning around 3000 BCE and continuing into the Preclassic and Classic periods. These points were likely used in spears or harpoons to hunt and fish or used as hafted knives. Trade Stone tools have been used to track possible trade networks throughout Mesoamerica. Little is known about trade in the Archaic period, but some evidence suggests the existence of local trade networks and some possible long-distance trade. Barbara Voorhies and her colleagues have argued that coastal Chantuto peoples in Southern Mexico traded for obsidian. Christine Niederberger suggests that sedentary peoples in the Basin of Mexico traded to obtain foreign green obsidian, rather than traveling to gather it directly from the source. In addition, Colha chert has been found outside of the Colha region, suggesting that trade networks may have developed around Colha chert. == Important sites ==

Highlands Many important Archaic sites are located within Highland Mexico, likely due to the early extensive research into the Archaic period by Richard MacNeish in the Valley of Tehuacán. Because archaeologists are skeptical of the accuracy of the radiocarbon dates and the integrity of stratigraphic levels, data and artifacts found in Tehuacán have been re-examined and re-analyzed many times. Within the valley, one major site is Coxcatlan Cave. Coxcatlan Cave contained 15 out of 33 Archaic period components found in MacNeish's survey, as well as 75% of the stone tools. • El Gigante rock shelter: El Gigante rock shelter is in the southern highlands of Honduras with excellent organic preservation. It was occupied seasonally and has storage pits. It was excavated in 2000 and 2001 and contains remains of wild plants and animals, as well as domesticated squash, though not maize. Lowlands • Chiapas coast: Six large shell mounds on the coastal plain are some of the earliest sites in the region. The area has been predominantly excavated and surveyed by Barbara Voorhies. :* Cerro de las Conchas: Cerro de las Conchas is the earliest of the Chiapas shell mounds, dating between 5500 and 3500 BCE. It is 3.5 m high and 100 m in diameter and located at the edge of the El Hueyate mangrove estuary. It was periodically occupied as a location to collect and process marine resources, especially clams and shrimp. :* Tlacuachero shell mound: Tlacuachero is also a shell mound that was seasonally occupied to gather and process marine resources, such as clams, fish, and turtles. 57 obsidian flakes have been found that seem to originate from highland Guatemala, suggesting there may have been trade networks. Two burials have been excavated at the site. • Colha: Colha and other nearby sites, such as Cobweb Swamp, Pulltrouser Swamp, and Freshwater Creek, are located within the Northern Belize Chert-Bearing Zone and are important sites for chert starting in the Archaic period and continuing into the Preclassic and Classic period. The first permanent settlements at Colha begin around 3000 BCE and Colha remains settled in later periods. As a result, Colha has one of the best defined Late Archaic sequences and is useful in tracking changes from the Archaic period into the Preclassic. • Actun Halal: Actun Halal is a 30 m long rock shelter in the Macal River Valley in Western Belize. The site was occupied from around 2400 to 1210 BCE. Constricted adzes and evidence of maize and cotton production have been found. • Xihuatoxtla rock shelter: Xihuatoctla rock shelter is located on a tributary of the central Balsas River. The site dates between 6990 and 6610 BCE. Archaeologists have discovered 251 chipped-stone artifacts, as well as hand and milling stones. == Connection to Maya Preclassic ==

It is generally unclear when the Archaic period ends and the Preclassic begins. Based on the appearance of Maya ceramics at important Preclassic sites, the transition occurred roughly between 1200 and 800 BCE and differed by region. Another issue is whether the Archaic peoples in the Maya region were the same people as in the Preclassic. There is little consensus on the nature, identity, or origins of the earliest Maya, which is complicated by disagreement about what constitutes Maya culture. Terrence Kaufman suggested that the lowlands were populated by proto-Mayan speaking people from the highlands because Proto-Mayan languages split around 2200 BCE in the highlands and splinter groups appear in the lowlands around 1400 BCE. == Notes ==