Hanno the Navigator

The name of Hanno was given to many Carthaginians. Ancient texts which specifically mention Hanno the Navigator do not provide much in the way of positively identifying him; some authors referred to him as a king, while others referred to him with the Latin words dux (leader, general) or imperator (commander, emperor). The Greek translation of Hanno's periplus account names him a basileus, a term which may be interpreted as "king", but was commonly used for other high-level Carthaginian officials. The consensus of scholarship places Hanno as living sometime in the 5th century BC, identifying him as a member of the aristocratic Magonid family. == Periplus account ==

Hanno's account, the periplus ( circumnavigation), remains extant in Greek-language manuscripts. The original version, written in the Punic language, has been lost. The Greek translation is abridged it is probably derived from an original Carthaginian text. and one of the few extant accounts of ancient exploration penned by the explorer himself. In the fifth century, the text was translated into Greek. Over the centuries, the translation was copied several times by Greek and Greek-speaking Roman clerks. Two copies remain extant, dating to the 9th and 14th centuries. The proper names are unchanged from the translation. It reflects the views of the translator and may ignore more widely accepted theories among scholars. As the work begins, "this is the report of the periplus of Hanno, king of the Carthaginians, into the Libyan areas of the earth beyond the Pillars of Hercules which he dedicated in the sanctuary of Kronos." With 60 ships and 30,000 people, Hanno intends to found cities along the African coast. He first founds one city, then sails some distance and founds five others. Arriving at a river, the Carthaginians meet the Lixitae, a friendly nomadic tribe. They learn of the nearby Ethiopians, and taking aboard several Lixitae, set sail again. At the small island Kerne, another settlement is built. Around the lake Chretes and an unnamed river, there are savage men and large wild beasts respectively. After returning to Kerne, they sail further south down Africa, finding Ethiopians whose language even the Lixitae interpreters do not understand. Passing further, Hanno finds an "immense opening of the sea", from which fires may be sighted. At a bay called the "Horn of the West", they land on an island where humans live. The Carthaginians hurry away in fear and reach lands where there are many flames. A very tall mountain is there. Finally arriving at a bay, the "Horn of the South", there is an island with hostile, hirsute men named "Gorillas" (see ). Three of them are killed, their skins brought home to Carthage. Having run out of provisions, they do not sail further. The periplus abruptly ends here without discussing the return journey. Textual criticism Both ancient and modern authors have criticized the work. Most attempts to locate the places described in the periplus based on the reported sailing distances and directions have failed. To make the text more accurate, scholars have tried textual criticism. Ultimately, the Carthaginians probably edited the real account to protect their trade: other countries would not be able to identify the places described, while Carthaginians could still boast about their accomplishments. Oikonomides theorizes that the hypothetical Punic manuscript that was translated into Greek was incomplete itself: it left out the later parts of the original periplus. The ending of the narrative is abrupt, and it would also have been logically impossible for the expedition to end as described. Therefore, he argues, the final two lines must have been inserted to compensate for an incomplete manuscript. == Expedition ==

Carthage dispatched Hanno, at the head of a fleet of 60 ships, to explore and colonize the northwestern coast of Africa. He sailed west from Carthage toward the Iberian Peninsula, passing through the Strait of Gibraltar and founding or repopulating seven colonies along the coast of (what is now) Morocco. He then continued at least some distance further south along the continent's Atlantic coast, allegedly encountering various indigenous peoples along his way, who met the fleet with a range of "welcomes". The gold trade had been a vital foundation of the Carthaginian empire from the fifth century BC, and the desire to secure the gold route to West Africa may have been the original motivation for the exploration of sub-Saharan Africa. Other sources have questioned this high number of men, with some suggesting 5,000 to be a more accurate number. Harden reports a consensus that the expedition reached at least as far as Senegal. Due to the vagueness of the Periplus, estimates for the voyage's distance range from under to at least . Some agree he could have reached Gambia. However, Harden mentions disagreement as to the farthest limit of Hanno's explorations: Sierra Leone, Cameroon, or Gabon. He notes the description of Mount Cameroon, a volcano, more closely matches Hanno's description than Guinea's Mount Kakoulima. Warmington prefers Mount Kakoulima, considering Mount Cameroon too "distant". French historian Raymond Mauny, in his 1955 article "La navigation sur les côtes du Sahara pendant l'antiquité", argued that ancient navigators (Hanno, Euthymenes, Scylax, etc.) could not have sailed south along the Atlantic coast much farther than Cape Bojador, in the territory of Western Sahara. Carthage, reportedly, knew of and conducted some trade with the peoples of the Canary Islands; ancient geographers were aware of the archipelago, as well, though nothing further south. Ships with square sails, without a stern rudder, might navigate south, but the winds and currents throughout the year would complicate or prevent the return trip from Senegal to Morocco. Oared ships might be able to achieve the return northward, but only with very great difficulties and a large crew. Mauny assumed that Hanno did not get farther than the mouth of the river Drâa, attributing artifacts found on Mogador Island to the expedition described in the Periplus of Pseudo-Scylax (dated mid-4th century BC) and noting that no evidence of Mediterranean trade further south had yet been found. The author ends by suggesting archaeological investigations of the islands along the coast, such as Cape Verde, or the île de Herné ('Dragon Island', near Dakhla, Western Sahara) where ancient adventurers may have been stranded and settled. Gorillai The end of the periplus describes an island populated with hairy and savage people. Attempts to capture the men failed. Three of the women were taken, but were so ferocious that they were killed, their skins brought home to Carthage. The skins were kept in the Temple of Juno (Tanit or Astarte) on Hanno's return and, according to Pliny the Elder, survived until the Roman destruction of Carthage in 146 BC, some 350 years after Hanno's expedition. Hanno's interpreters of an African tribe (Lixites or Nasamonians) called the people Gorillai (in Greek, ). == Ancient authors' accounts ==

The text was known to the Roman Pliny the Elder (c. 23–79) and the Greek Arrian of Nicomedia (c. 86–160). Pliny the Elder Pliny may have recorded the time vaguely because he was ignorant of the actual date.), though it is doubtful whether he was aware of Hanno's voyage itself. == Legacy ==

The lunar crater Hanno is named after him. Singer-songwriter Al Stewart has a song about Hanno on his album Sparks of Ancient Light. == Historiography ==

In the 16th century, the voyage of Hanno saw increased scholarly interest from Europeans in an age when European exploration and navigation were flourishing. Already then, the extent of Hanno's voyage was debated. ==Notes==