The Heian period was preceded by the
Nara period and began in 794 CE after the movement of the capital of Japan to Heian-kyō (modern Kyoto), by the 50th emperor,
Emperor Kanmu. Kanmu first tried to move the capital to
Nagaoka-kyō (modern Kyoto), but a series of disasters befell the city, prompting the emperor to relocate the capital a second time, to Heian. A
rebellion occurred in China toward the end of the 9th century, making the political situation unstable. The
Japanese missions to Tang China were suspended and the influx of Chinese exports halted, a fact which facilitated the independent growth of Japanese culture called . Eventually, the eastern province of
Hitachi (modern Ibaraki), and almost simultaneously,
Fujiwara no Sumitomo rebelled in the west;
samurai played a crucial role in suppressing both disturbances on behalf of the Emperor. In the rebellious north, the latter half of the 11th century saw the
Former Nine Years War and the
Latter Three Years' War between the central government and the
Abe and
Kiyohara clan respectively. Still, a true military takeover of the Japanese government was centuries away, when much of the strength of the government would lie within the private armies of the shogunate. By the 12th century, court authority weakened as the decentralized land allocation system managed by aristocratic vassals, preferring life at court over regional administration, made the system increasingly ineffective. Kyoto had good river access to the sea and could be reached by land routes from the eastern provinces. The early Heian period (784–967) continued Nara culture; the Heian capital was patterned on the
Chinese Tang capital at
Chang'an, as was Nara, but on a larger scale than Nara. Kammu endeavored to improve the Tang-style administrative system which was in use. Known as the
Ritsuryō Code, this system attempted to recreate the Tang legal system in Japan, despite the "tremendous differences in the levels of development between the two countries". Despite the decline of the
Taika–
Taihō reforms, the imperial government was vigorous during the early Heian period. Kammu's avoidance of drastic reform decreased the intensity of political struggles, and he became recognized as one of Japan's most forceful emperors. Although Kammu had abandoned universal conscription in 792, he still waged major military offensives to subjugate the
Emishi, possible descendants of the displaced
Jōmon, living in northern and eastern Japan. After making temporary gains in 794, in 797, Kammu appointed a new commander,
Sakanoue no Tamuramaro, under the title
Seii Taishōgun ("Barbarian-subduing generalissimo"). By 801, the
shōgun had defeated the Emishi and had extended the imperial domains to the eastern end of
Honshū. Imperial control over the provinces was tenuous at best, however. In the 9th and 10th centuries, much authority was lost to the great families, who disregarded the Chinese-style land and tax systems imposed by the government in Kyoto. Stability came to Japan, but, even though succession was ensured for the imperial family through heredity, power again concentrated in the hands of one noble family, the Fujiwara. '', Following Kammu's death in 806 and a succession struggle among his sons, two new offices were established in an effort to adjust the
Taika–
Taihō administrative structure. Through the new Emperor's Private Office, the emperor could issue administrative edicts more directly and with more self-assurance than before. The new Metropolitan Police Board replaced the largely ceremonial imperial guard units. While these two offices strengthened the emperor's position temporarily, soon they and other Chinese-style structures were bypassed in the developing state. In 838 the end of the imperial-sanctioned missions to
Tang China, which had begun in 630, marked the effective end of Chinese influence. Tang China was in a state of decline, and Chinese Buddhists were severely persecuted, undermining Japanese respect for Chinese institutions. Japan began to turn inward. As the
Soga clan had taken control of the throne in the sixth century, the Fujiwara by the 9th century had intermarried with the
imperial family, and one of their members was the first head of the Emperor's Private Office. Another Fujiwara became regent,
Sesshō for his grandson, then a minor emperor and yet another was appointed
Kampaku. Toward the end of the 9th century, several emperors tried but failed to check the Fujiwara. For a time, however, during the reign of
Emperor Daigo (897–930), the Fujiwara regency was suspended as he ruled directly. Nevertheless, the Fujiwara were not demoted by Daigo but actually became stronger during his reign. Central control of Japan had continued to decline, and the Fujiwara, along with other great families and religious foundations, acquired ever larger
shōen and greater wealth during the early 10th century. By the early Heian period, the
shōen had obtained legal status, and the large religious establishments sought clear titles in perpetuity, waiver of taxes, and immunity from government inspection of the
shōen they held. Those people who worked the land found it advantageous to transfer title to
shōen holders in return for a share of the harvest. People and lands were increasingly beyond central control and taxation, a
de facto return to conditions before the
Taika Reform. , by
Kikuchi Yōsai , from the
Heike Nōkyō collection of texts, 1167 Within decades of Daigo's death, the Fujiwara had absolute control over the court. By the year 1000,
Fujiwara no Michinaga was able to enthrone and dethrone emperors at will. Little authority was left for traditional institutions, and government affairs were handled through the Fujiwara clan's private administration. The Fujiwara had become what historian George B. Sansom has called "hereditary dictators". Despite their usurpation of imperial authority, the Fujiwara presided over a period of cultural and artistic flowering at the imperial court and among the aristocracy. There was great interest in graceful poetry and
vernacular literature. Two types of phonetic Japanese script:
katakana, a simplified script that was developed by using parts of Chinese characters, was abbreviated to
hiragana, a cursive syllabary with a distinct writing method that was uniquely Japanese. Hiragana gave written expression to the spoken word and, with it, to the rise in Japan's famous vernacular literature, much of it written by court women who had not been trained in Chinese as had their male counterparts. Three late-10th and early-11th century women presented their views of life and romance at the Heian court in
Kagerō Nikki by "the mother of
Fujiwara Michitsuna",
The Pillow Book by
Sei Shōnagon and
The Tale of Genji by
Murasaki Shikibu. Indigenous art also flourished under the Fujiwara after centuries of imitating Chinese forms. Vividly colored
yamato-e, Japanese style paintings of court life and stories about temples and shrines became common in the mid-to-late Heian period, setting patterns for Japanese art to this day. As culture flourished, so did decentralization. Whereas the first phase of
shōen development in the early Heian period had seen the opening of new lands and the granting of the use of lands to aristocrats and religious institutions, the second phase saw the growth of patrimonial "house governments", as in the old clan system. In fact, the form of the old clan system had remained largely intact within the great old centralized government. New institutions were now needed in the face of social, economic, and political changes. The
Taihō Code lapsed, its institutions relegated to ceremonial functions. Family administrations now became public institutions. As the most powerful family, the Fujiwara governed Japan and determined the general affairs of state, such as succession to the throne. Family and state affairs were thoroughly intermixed, a pattern followed among other families, monasteries, and even the imperial family. Land management became the primary occupation of the aristocracy, not so much because direct control by the imperial family or central government had declined but more from strong family solidarity and a lack of a sense of Japan as a single nation.
Rise of the military class Under the early courts, when military
conscription had been centrally controlled, military affairs had been taken out of the hands of the provincial aristocracy. But as the system broke down after 792, local power holders again became the primary source of military strength. The re-establishment of an efficient military system was made gradually through a process of trial-and-error. At that time the imperial court did not possess an army but rather relied on an organization of professional warriors composed mainly of oryoshi, which were appointed to an individual province and tsuibushi, which were appointed over imperial circuits or for specific tasks. This gave rise to the Japanese military class. Nonetheless, final authority rested with the imperial court.
Shōen holders had access to manpower and, as they obtained improved military technology (such as new training methods, more powerful bows, armor, horses, and superior swords) and faced worsening local conditions in the 9th century, military service became part of
shōen life. Not only the
shōen but also civil and religious institutions formed private guard units to protect themselves. Gradually, the provincial upper class was transformed into a new military elite of
samurai. Bushi interests were diverse, cutting across old power structures to form new associations in the 10th century. Mutual interests, family connections, and kinship were consolidated in military groups that became part of family administration. In time, large regional military families formed around members of the court aristocracy who had become prominent provincial figures. These military families gained prestige from connections to the imperial court and court-granted military titles and access to manpower. The Fujiwara family, Taira clan, and Minamoto clan were among the most prominent families supported by the new military class. A decline in food production, the growth of the population, and competition for resources among the great families all led to the gradual decline of Fujiwara power and gave rise to military disturbances in the mid-10th and 11th centuries. Members of the Fujiwara,
Taira, and
Minamoto families—all of whom had descended from the imperial family—attacked one another, claimed control over vast tracts of conquered land, set up rival regimes, and generally upset the peace. The Fujiwara controlled the throne until the reign of
Emperor Go-Sanjō (1068–1073), the first emperor not born of a Fujiwara mother since the 9th century. Go-Sanjo, determined to restore imperial control through strong personal rule, implemented reforms to curb Fujiwara influence. He also established an office to compile and validate
estate records with the aim of reasserting central control. Many
shōen were not properly certified, and large landholders, like the Fujiwara, felt threatened with the loss of their lands. Go-Sanjo also established the ( "Office of the Cloistered Emperor"), which was held by a succession of emperors who abdicated to devote themselves to behind-the-scenes governance, or
insei.
Decline of the Fujiwara The
In-no-chō filled the void left by the decline of Fujiwara power. Rather than being banished, the Fujiwara were mostly retained in their old positions of civil dictator and minister of the center while being bypassed in decision making. In time, many of the Fujiwara were replaced, mostly by members of the rising
Minamoto clan. While the Fujiwara fell into disputes among themselves and formed northern and southern factions, the
insei system allowed the paternal line of the imperial family to gain influence over the throne. The period from 1086 to 1156 was the age of supremacy of the
In-no-chō and of the rise of the military class throughout the country. Military might rather than civil authority dominated the government. A struggle for succession in the mid-12th century gave the Fujiwara an opportunity to regain their former power.
Fujiwara no Yorinaga sided with the retired emperor in a violent battle in 1156 against the heir apparent, who was supported by the Taira and Minamoto (
Hōgen Rebellion). In the end, the Fujiwara were destroyed, the old system of government supplanted, and the
insei system left powerless as bushi took control of court affairs, marking a turning point in Japanese history. In 1159, the Taira and Minamoto clashed (
Heiji Rebellion), and a twenty-year period of Taira ascendancy began.
Taira no Kiyomori emerged as the real power in Japan following the Fujiwara's destruction, and he would remain in command for the next 20 years. He gave his daughter
Tokuko in marriage to the young
emperor Takakura, who died at only 19, leaving their infant son
Antoku to succeed to the throne. Kiyomori filled no less than 50 government posts with his relatives, rebuilt the
Inland Sea, and encouraged trade with
Song China. He also took aggressive actions to safeguard his power when necessary, including the removal and exile of 45 court officials and the razing of two troublesome temples,
Todai-ji and
Kofuku-ji. The Taira were seduced by court life and ignored problems in the provinces, where the Minamoto clan were rebuilding their strength. In 1183, two years after Kiyomori's death,
Minamoto no Yoritomo dispatched his brothers
Yoshitsune and
Noriyori to attack Kyoto. The Taira were routed and forced to flee, and the Empress Dowager tried to drown herself and the 6-year old Emperor. He perished, but his mother survived. Takakura's other son succeeded as Emperor
Go-Toba. With Yoritomo firmly established, the
bakufu system that governed Japan for the next seven centuries was in place. He was granted court authority to appoint military governors, or
shugo, to rule over the provinces, and stewards, or
jito to supervise public and private estates, thus ensuring order with the
gokenin (vassals). Yoritomo then turned his attention to the elimination of the powerful Fujiwara family, which sheltered his rebellious brother Yoshitsune. Three years later, he was appointed
shōgun in Kyoto. One year before his death in 1199, Yoritomo expelled the teenaged emperor Go-Toba from the throne. Two of Go-Toba's sons succeeded him, but they would also be removed by Yoritomo's successors to the shogunate. ==Culture==