Background and formation The Eastern Zhou dynasty began its fall around the 5th century BC. As their influence waned, they had to rely on armies in allied states rather than their own military force. Hundreds of smaller polities coalesced into seven major states which included Chu, Han, Qin, Wei, Yan, Qi and Zhao. However, there eventually was a shift in alliances because each state's ruler wanted independence. This caused hundreds of wars between 535 and 286 BC. The victorious state would have overall rule and control in China. The decline of the Zhou house began with the transfer of the capital from Shensi to the east in 770 BC. Nearly 150 years later, though, it would become weak, as seen in the formula used by the King to invest
Duke Wen of Jin as
Lord Protector (Pa): Oh, my Uncle! Illustrious were the Kings Wen and Wu; they knew how to take care of their shining virtue, which rose with splendor on High (toward Heaven) and whose renown spread wide on earth. This is why the Soverign of On-High made the Mandate succeed in the case of the Kinds Wen and Wu. Have pity on me! Cause me to continue (the line of my ancestors); Me, the Unique Man and cause (me and my line) to be perpetually on the throne!
Partition of Jin (453–403 BC) Almost exactly 25 years after the death of
Confucius in 479 BC, the leaders of Wei, Han, and Zhao Clans attacked the ruler of Jin, defeated him near or on the site now called
Taiyuan in 453, and split his domain among themselves. Earl Chih was decapitated, his family exterminated, and his skull was presented to
Zhao Wuxu, who
used it as a drinking cup. This is marked as the beginning of the Warring States period. Around this time there existed a
Son of Heaven; a member of the Zhou house, whose authority other than the borders of the minuscule enclave by the rulers of the great states was practically non-existent. For centuries the kings of Zhou were no more than symbolic figures who maintained the calendar and performed periodic ritual sacrifices, upon which the relationship of Heaven, Earth, and Man stood.
Early Warring States The Three Jins recognized (403–376 BC) In 403 BC, the court of
King Weilie of Zhou officially recognized the
viscounts (
zi 子) of Zhao, Wei and Han as marquises (
hou 侯) after they conquered Jin.
Qi usurpation under Tian (391–386 BC) dragon garment ornament from the Warring States period Qin, Qi, and Chu states would all greatly benefit from the fall of Jin, with Qi undergoing the most change, and controlled the Zhou cultural sphere, though Qi would eventually falter. The Tian family, who were invaluable to the Qi rulers, would achieve complete dominance over the political sphere by usurping power and title. Tian then divided half of Qi as a puppet state, exiling the current ruler to a rural town, and the other half for their own complete control. When the Qi ruler died with no successor, the Tians would be recognized by the Zhou and delegate power over the state to
Grand Duke Wang, though the Zhou would only do this to avoid getting overpowered by other states.
Politics of Wei (369-335 BC) with two dragon heads, Warring States,
Shanghai Museum|alt= In 369 BC,
Marquess Wen of Wei would ascend the throne of Wei and become the leader of the Wei family. With the help of the Three Qins, they besieged the Qi territory (located in modern-day
Pingyuan County, Shandong.) Marquess Wen of Wei would also lead the Three Jins against the Chu state in response to their routine occupations. In 400 BC, Chu would be defeated. Marquess Wen would lead Wei to become the mightiest state in China, with even one of Confucius' old students, named
Bu Shang, became Wei's court tutor and numerous strategists at their disposal.
King Hui of Wei ascended the throne of Wei one year later in 370 BC. Thanks to his predecessors and a great geographical position, King Hui of Wei was able to have several states enter an alliance under King Hui's supervision. However, due to the excellent position Wei was in (similar to Jin before its partition) King Hui frequently was limited by the other states in what he was able to accomplish. Later, in 340 BC, Qi would attack Wei, and Wei would only survive because Chu came to its assistance. Finally, in 335 BC, King Hui would resolve and end the conflict with the Qi ruler. The two met and both took the title of "King," (
wang, , until this, Hui had previously the title of a marquess (
hou, ) presumably ending the conflict between the two.
Shang Yang reforms Qin (358–338 BC) , a set of bronze
bianzhong percussion instruments from the
Tomb of Marquis Yi of Zeng in
Hubei (433 BC) After being rejected as a successor to the duke of Wey,
Shang Yang decided to offer his services outside of Wey. Later,
Duke Xiao of Qin began calling for talented men to serve him, which captured Shang Yang's attention, in hopes for money and status. When he presented his ideas, court officials objected to them, labeling them as radical, but Duke Xiao would be swayed by his plans and made Shang Yang Prime Minister. He would remain in power for 20 years. Shang Yang made major reforms to Qin, including new taxation systems, government management of the economy , standardization of measures and weights, promotion of the
nuclear family and, as many writers emphasized, a
harsh legal code. One could be cut in two if they harbored a fugitive, and severe punishments were delivered for relatively minor crimes. Shang Yang would also divide the lands of Qin into counties, which was determined according to the duke's court ruler. He delegated magistrates to rule over these counties, and since these magistrates had no political loyalty, Shang Yang was able to create the first true state-wide bureaucracy in China. He also began an official census, which would help in delivering punishment to the entire family, another aspect of legalistic Chinese philosophy. Rewards for good behavior were also given,though the punishments left a more lasting mark than rewards did. One even had the potential for one to attain patrician status, which upset the patricians, who were held up by their ancient status. Shang Yang would fall from power when he was declared an outlaw by the government and would be killed by the Qin armies.
Qin's further aggression (338–320 BC) After Wei and Qi resolved their conflict, Qin began to expand extensively. They defeated several nomadic tribes to their north and had begun to take fertile land in their southwest, (modern-day upper
Yangzi river) to which Chu was unable to deal with as they were already taking the fallen lands of
Wu and
Yue, and had no choice but to let Qin take their land, improving Qin's geographical position.
Horizontal and vertical alliances (334–249 BC) Towards the end of the Warring States period, the
state of Qin became disproportionately powerful compared with the other six states. As a result, the policies of the six states became overwhelmingly oriented towards dealing with the Qin threat, with two opposing schools of thought. One school advocated a 'vertical' or north–south alliance called () in which the states would ally with each other to repel Qin. The other advocated a 'horizontal' or east–west alliance called (), in which a state would ally with weaker states in an attempt to expand territory. There were some initial successes in , though mutual suspicions between allied states led to the breakdown of such alliances. Qin repeatedly exploited the horizontal alliance strategy to defeat the states one by one. During this period, many philosophers and tacticians travelled around the states, recommending that the rulers put their respective ideas into use. These "lobbyists", such as
Su Qin, who advocated vertical alliances, and
Zhang Yi, who advocated horizontal alliances, were famous for their tact and intellect, and were collectively known as the
School of Diplomacy, whose Chinese name ( 'the school of the vertical and horizontal') was derived from the two opposing ideas.
Su Qin and the first vertical alliance (334–300 BC) Beginning in 334 BC the diplomat
Su Qin spent years visiting the courts of Yan, Zhao, Han, Wei, Qi and Chu and persuaded them to form a united front against Qin. In 318 BC all states except Qi launched a joint attack on Qin, which was not successful.
King Hui of Qin died in 311 BC, followed by prime minister Zhang Yi one year later. The new monarch,
King Wu, reigned only four years before dying without legitimate heirs. Some damaging turbulence ensued throughout 307 BC before a son of King Hui by a concubine (i.e. a younger half-brother of King Wu) could be established as
King Zhao, who in stark contrast to his predecessor went on to rule for an unprecedented 53 years. After the failure of the first vertical alliance, Su Qin eventually came to live in Qi, where he was favored by King Xuan and drew the envy of the ministers. An assassination attempt in 300 BC left Su mortally wounded but not dead. Sensing death approaching, he advised the newly crowned
King Min have him publicly executed to draw out the assassins. King Min complied with Su's request and killed him, putting an end to the first generation of Vertical alliance thinkers.
The first horizontal alliance (300–287 BC) , Warring States period
King Min of Qi came to be highly influenced by
Lord Mengchang, a grandson of the former
King Wei of Qi. Lord Mengchang made a westward alliance with the states of
Wei and
Han. In the far west, Qin, which had been weakened by a succession struggle in 307, yielded to the new coalition and appointed Lord Mengchang its chief minister. The alliance between Qin and Qi was sealed by a Qin princess marrying King Min. This
horizontal or east–west alliance might have secured peace except that it excluded the
State of Zhao. Around 299 BC,
the ruler of
Zhao became the last of the seven major states to proclaim himself "king". In 298 BC, Zhao offered Qin an alliance and Lord Mengchang was driven out of Qin. The remaining three allies, Qi, Wei and Han, attacked Qin, driving up the
Yellow River below Shanxi to the
Hangu Pass. After 3 years of fighting they took the pass and forced Qin to return territory to Han and Wei. They next inflicted major defeats on Yan and Chu. During the 5-year administration of Lord Mengchang, Qi was the major power in China. In 294, Lord Mengchang was implicated in a ''coup d'état'' and fled to Wei. His alliance system collapsed. Qi and Qin made a truce and pursued their own interests. Qi moved south against the
state of Song whilst the Qin General
Bai Qi pushed back eastward against a Han/Wei alliance, gaining victory at the
Battle of Yique. In 288,
King Zhao of Qin and
King Min of Qi took the title
di ( 'emperor'), of the west and east respectively. They swore a covenant and started planning an attack on Zhao.
Su Dai and the second vertical alliance In 287 BC the strategist Su Dai, younger brother of Su Qin
Sima Qian contradicts himself regarding the ultimate fate of the East Zhou court. Chapter 4 (The Annals of Zhou) concludes with the sentence "thus the sacrifices of Zhou ended", but in the following chapter 5 (The Annals of Qin) we learn that "Qin did not prohibit their sacrifices; the Lord of Zhou was allotted a patch of land in Yangren where he could continue his ancestral sacrifices".
Qin unites China (230–221 BC) King Zhuangxiang of Qin ruled for only three years. He was succeeded by his son Zheng, who unlike the two elderly kings that preceded him was only 13 years old at his coronation. As an adult, Zheng became a brilliant commander who, in the span of just ten years, as seen below, unified China. Though not mentioned here, Qin would later, in the 4th century, subjugate almost all western territories (modern day
Gansu province and the greater
Lanzhou area.) with the final nail in the coffin being the establishment of a
prefecture in
Yinchuan.
Conquest of Zhao and Yan In 230 BC, Qin saw an opportunity to conquer Zhao as they were experiencing a drought. Qin sent three generals.
Wang Jian started in
Shangdang Commandery, moved through the
Taihang Mountains to attack Jingxing (modern-day
Jingxing County). , laid siege to
Handan, and
Li Xin attacked and took control of
Taiyuan and the
Yunzhong Commandery. Zhao general
Li Mu and fought fiercely against Qin, hindering their progress. In response, Qin sent an operative to bribe ,
King Youmiao's "principal favorite" minister. Guo Kai presumably took the bribe and accused the two generals of siding with Qin. They were replaced with and . Li Mu, however, refused to transfer authority because he thought the two generals were not skilled enough to fight Qin. This aroused suspicion, so King Youmiao secretly sent men to kill Li Mu. Qin would then conquer Zhao three months later in 228 BC, killing Zhao Cong and capturing King Youmiao alive, and then establish the prefecture of
Handan, which had control over all other nearby areas. The armies of Qin then assembled on the
Ji River banks and prepared an invasion of Yan. The prince of Yan,
Crown Prince Dan knew he could not defeat Qin, so he sought
Jing Ke, an assassin, for help in kidnapping the Qin king,
Qin Shi Huang, and persuade him to retreat his armies. Jing Ke agreed and attempted to kidnap him, but failed and died. Qin Shi Huang was furious at Crown Prince Dan and sent even more soldiers against Yan. Led by Wang Jian and Xin Sheng (辛勝), Qin successfully defeated the enemy forces. Later, in 226 BC, both generals conquered the Yan capital,
Jicheng, forcing the Yan king,
Xi of Yan, to flee to
Liaoning, who was able to survive by giving Crown Prince Dan's severed head.
Conquest of Wei In 225 BC,
Wang Ben, (Wang Jian's son) was sent to conquer Wei. They would flood the
Daliang Mountains, forcing
Jia of Wei to surrender. Meng Ao would attack
Zhang Yi and Guiguzi. A few years later both generals would be captured. Meng Ao would go on to capture twenty cities including
Changping and Yongqiu (now modern-day
Qi County, Kaifeng.)
Conquest of Chu , unearthed at Banshan,
Hangzhou, Warring States period,
Hangzhou Museum In 225 BC, Qin prepared to invade Chu. After receiving 400,000 soldiers, one-half led by
Meng Wu towards modern-day
Pingyu County and another half led by
Li Xin, towards modern-day
Shenqiu County. The Qin forces took both cities and met in
Chengdu to begin another conquest. However, a revolution and hostage situation in modern-day
Jiangling County forced Li Xin to quell the rebellion, leading to heavy causalities for Li Xin's army. In 222 BC, Wang Jian was recalled to lead a second military invasion with 600,000 men against the rebels in Chu state. High in morale after their victory in the previous year, the Chu forces were content to sit back and defend against what they expected to be a
siege of Chu. However, Wang Jian decided to weaken Chu's resolve and tricked the Chu army by appearing to be idle in his fortifications whilst secretly training his troops to fight in Chu territory. After a year, the Chu defenders decided to disband due to apparent lack of action from the Qin. Wang Jian invaded at that point, with full force, and overran Huaiyang and the remaining Chu forces. Chu lost the initiative and could only sustain local guerrilla-style resistance until it too was fully conquered with the destruction of
Shouchun and the death of its last leader,
Lord Changping, in 223 BC. At their peak, the combined armies of Chu and Qin are estimated to have ranged from hundreds of thousands to a million soldiers, more than those involved in the campaign of Changping between Qin and Zhao 35 years earlier. In the rule of the Qin state, the union was based solely on military power. The feudal holdings were abolished, and noble families were forced to live in the capital city Xianyang, in order to be supervised. A national road (as well as greater use of canals) allowed for faster and easier deployment and supply of the army. The peasants were given a wider range of land rights, although they were subject to taxation, creating a large amount of revenue to the state.
Conquest of Qi Qi Prime Minister was bribed to influence King
Jian of Qi to have a pacifist view towards Qin, so when the Qin attacked other states, the king send no aid. Wang Ben was easily able to conquer Qi due to its lack of military strength, and divided Qi into 2 prefectures. After successfully unifying all of China, Qin Shi Huang would claim the title of emperor, marking the end of the Warring States period, in 221 BC. ==Military theory and practice==