First phase On October 31, Odría was sworn in as president of the Military Government Junta. The rest of the members of this junta were the following: Generals
Zenón Noriega (
Minister of War) and José Villanueva Pinillos (
Aeronautics); Colonels Emilio Pereyra (
Treasury), Luis Ramírez Ortiz, (
Public Education), Alberto López (
Public Health), Marcial Romero Pardo (
Justice) and Carlos Miñano (
Agriculture); Lieutenant Colonels Augusto Villacorta (
Government and Police) and Alfonso Llosa G.P. (
Promotion); and Rear Admirals (
Foreign Relations) and
Roque A. Saldías (
Navy). Eduardo Rivera Schreiber was appointed secretary of the Junta. After becoming provisional president two days after the coup, Odría wasted little time in applying a series of severe measures aimed at restoring public order. The first of these was the ban on those "international parties" that, according to those in power, had been responsible for the crisis that warranted the intervention of the Armed Forces. From the beginning this government was violently imposed with the suppression of individual guarantees, which was enshrined indefinitely with an arbitrary Internal Security Law (Decree Law No. 11049 of July 1, 1949), which established the crimes considered against security and public tranquility that had political or social purposes. It also established crimes against the organisation and internal peace of the Republic. The economy underwent a shift towards liberalism, although without falling into extremes. They wanted to modernise the economy, for which the North American mission chaired by Julius Klein was hired, which recommended the
free market system. Odría attended to the main recommendations of this mission: elimination of subsidies, free trade, disappearance of controls and budget balance. The economic crisis could thus be contained. In the labour sphere, the Military Government Junta combined repression with political patronage, the
Confederation of Workers of Peru (CTP) was banned and its main union leaders persecuted or killed. On the other hand, the Junta granted social benefits to workers, created a National Education Fund destined exclusively for school construction, and a National Health Fund. Thus the first steps of a vast work were taken that would be fully developed under the constitutional government of Odría. Fear was used as a tool to obtain the consent of Peruvians: the death penalty was restored in cases of political unrest, censorship was imposed, and the right of assembly was prohibited. Although effective in the short term, Odría was aware that he could not govern the country indefinitely in this way. It was necessary to create the impression of some constitutional order. Odría announced that free and competitive elections would be held in May 1950. Given the atmosphere of repression and the existence of the Internal Security Law, most Peruvians believed that the elections would take place, but not in a free or competitive manner. Regarding changes in the executive, on April 30, 1949, Decree Law 11009 was promulgated. With its promulgation, the
Ministry of Labour and Indigenous Affairs was created, which was separated from the
Ministry of Justice and Labour. An organising body for the new office was formed. This was chaired by the head of Justice and Labour, Lieutenant Colonel Marcial Merino. In addition, it was made up of the director of Labour, the director of Indigenous Affairs and, as secretary, the head of the Legislation Division of the General Directorate of Labour. On May 31, General Armando Artola del Pozo was appointed as the first head of the Ministry of Labour and Indigenous Affairs. He directed the sector for five years, two months and twenty-two days, one of the longest in institutional history. He ceased to hold office on August 9, 1954. On October 29, 1949, the Military Government Junta appointed Colonel Augusto Romero Lovo as head of Justice and Worship, who took office on November 9. The members of the Junta were all military personnel, whose promotions corresponded to their merits and services, registered in a general War and Navy rank.
1950 Elections dating back to the 1950 revolt. To legitimise himself in power, Odría decided to call
presidential elections in which he himself would be the candidate. But there was a formal problem: according to the
1933 Constitution, the citizen who aspired to the presidency did not have to simultaneously exercise power, which he had to renounce at least six months before the elections. Odría solved the problem in his own way: with just three months left before the elections, he left power, entrusting the presidency of the Junta to General
Zenón Noriega on June 1, 1950. This act is known as the "descent to the plain" (). Odría formed the National Restoration Party and began his presidential campaign, knowing that with the Internal Security Law active he would enjoy easy elections, that is, without the presence of annoying competitors. Within the oligarchy they realised that General Odría was a person that was "difficult to handle". The new appreciation they had developed for the democratic process stemmed from a fear of Odría's economic policies and the hope that the oligarchy could directly govern the country. Faced with doubt and the small division of the oligarchy, the National Democratic League was formed, which was made up of people with different ideological points of view, including several members of the Front, and the search immediately began for a candidate of "unity." national". In this way, retired general
Ernesto Montagne Markholz, former
president of the Council of Ministers during the second government of
Óscar R. Benavides, was elected, under the logic that another representative of the Army would have more possibilities to confront Odría. The
National Jury of Elections disqualified Montagne, claiming that the signatures presented by his party were false. This action led to a limited revolt in the city of Arequipa that was quickly crushed. Among the revolutionaries were some visible elements of the National Democratic League. This was sufficient reason for the candidate Montagne to be arrested, accused of conspiring with APRA and exiled. In this way, without a political challenger, Odría participated unopposed during the election process on July 2, 1950, with an electoral card that only had his name on it.
Second phase Odría was sworn in as
Constitutional President on July 28, 1950, before a
Parliament also elected by popular vote. Politically, he kept the Internal Security Law in force, which severely repressed opponents of the regime, mainly APRA and
communists. In general terms, he continued the work laid out during the period of the Military Junta. His government was also characterised by populism, serving as the continuation of the Junta. Immediately after taking office, the
Ministerial Cabinet was formed, whose leadership was handed over to General
Zenón Noriega, as well as the
Ministry of War. The following people made up the Cabinet:
Zenón Noriega, (Foreign Relations), (Government and Police), (Justice and Worship),
Andrés F. Dasso (Treasury and Commerce), the Lieutenant Colonel (Public Development and Works), Rear Admiral
Roque A. Saldías (Navy), Colonel (Public Education),
Edgardo Rebagliati (Health and Social Assistance),
C.A.P. General José C. Villanueva, Luis Dibos Dammert (Agriculture) and Armando Artola (Labour and Indigenous Affairs). In this Cabinet, only six, out of a total of twelve supreme offices, were directed by the military. More than 28 foreign delegations were present for the transfer of command ceremony. Among them were the Argentine Foreign Minister and Virgilio Díaz Ordóñez of the
Dominican Republic.
Repression policy remained at the Colombian embassy from 1949 to 1954. The regime was characterised by authoritarianism and repression of all forms of political opposition. Political repression was embodied in the figure of the director and later Minister of Government, . Thousands of opponents were arrested and tortured and hundreds of them were exiled. Corruption was rampant in all sectors of the State due to the lack of rigorous oversight. The efforts made by the regime during its first days against the Aprista Party proved successful as the nation's prisons began to be filled with its members. At the beginning of 1949, Haya de la Torre sought asylum at the
Colombian Embassy, assuming that the regime would have no alternative but to grant him the safe passage necessary for his departure. Haya was a very controversial figure who generated discomfort among members of the Armed Forces and the oligarchy, who refused to accept him as a legitimate actor in Peruvian political life. These characters advised Odría to deny any request from the
Colombian government. In this way, the Peruvian authorities argued that Haya de la Torre was not a politically persecuted person, but rather a common criminal and, therefore, the
privilege of asylum could not be extended to him. The matter was
brought before the
International Court of Justice. Finally, the Peruvian government allowed Haya de la Torre to leave the embassy, immediately sending him into exile. The incident discredited the government internationally, since the image that Haya de la Torre projected was that of a persecuted politician, exiled for his leftist ideas.
Economy (1954). The priority of the Odría regime in the economic aspect was to end the financial crisis that had affected Peru since the end of the
Second World War. The first step was to hire an American mission led by economist Julius Klein. As expected, the entity's report recommended that it was necessary to further liberalise the economy. In this way, special emphasis was placed on the elimination of exchange controls imposed by previous administrations, a recommendation that Odría followed to the letter. He in turn opted for a liberal economic policy and the promotion of exports; in part, due to the pact that the dictator had established with some figures from the oligarchic right, who had financed and helped organise the 1948 coup d'état. Once this was done, the value of the
sol fell and as a consequence, exports rose to the delight of the oligarchy, especially those with interests in the cotton and sugar sectors. The liberation of the economy not only benefited domestic exporters, but also presented new opportunities for foreign companies, especially Americans, whose presence in Peruvian territory reached levels not seen since the days of the
Leguía regime. However, the government's measures were at some distance from the exporters' claims. Odría did not give in to pressure from his allies and sponsors because he was afraid that immediate deregulation would lead to inflation and impoverishment of workers, which could cost him the power in which he had just been asserting himself. Furthermore, the government's desire not to be identified as an instrument of the oligarchy must be taken into account. A sign of how dependent the Peruvian economy had become on the North American market came with the
Korean War. Due to U.S. demand, the value of Peruvian exports increased dramatically. This fact brought greater state revenue for Peru, which was used to finance public works that increased the population's support for Odría. Thus, Odría and his team began to show a populist streak, which was disturbing for the oligarchy. The president believed that an unconditional concession to exporters that would lead to his own policy with problematic results was not advisable, since it could cost him power.
Public works The boom in economic activity allowed Odría to develop a vast public works plan. His government motto was precisely: "Deeds and not words" (). Investments, which in 1948 reached 126,000,000 soles, increased to 1,000,000,000 in 1953. Likewise, work opportunities and health care were provided through the execution of public works. • A strong area of public works was directed towards the construction of the "Large School Units" (G.U.E.) both in Lima and in the main cities of the country, as well as hospitals, ministries, hotels, etc. Many of these works were destined for Odría's hometown,
Tarma, and
Tacna. An emblematic work was the construction of the
National Stadium of Lima, considered at the time as a colossal work and which would be remodelled much later, in 2011. • Important irrigation works were carried out, the main one being the diversion of the Quiroz River to the Piura Valley, initiated by the previous government; Likewise, the work to divert water from
Lake Choclococha to the
Ica River was activated, the international canal in the
Zarumilla River was enabled, in coordination with
Ecuador, and other small irrigation in the departments of
Cajamarca and
La Libertad. • An important road construction plan was carried out, improving existing roads and opening others towards the interior of the country. • Oil exploitation was promoted by the promulgation of the organic oil law of March 18, 1952. • The industrialisation process continued. For the benefit of large industry, electrification projects were formulated. • To encourage mining investment, a Mining Code was enacted in 1950. The most important investments were made by foreign companies (particularly U.S. companies). The exploitation of the
Toquepala and
Quellaveco copper deposits, and the
Marcona iron deposits, began. The mining boom was also due to international needs derived from the
Korean War.
National defence The Odría government strengthened the
Peruvian Army, whose services were improved. • By Law No. 11432, the Army was reorganised, giving them new regulations according to the advances in military technique. Successful legal provisions were given such as the *Organic Law of the Army, the Military Promotions Law, and the Code of Military Justice. • The installation of machinery for the
Navy Industrial Service (SIMA) began, with the capacity to manufacture large capacity ships. • The dock and the submarine base were expanded. • The Naval Medical Centre and in Lima came into operation. • Destroyers, submarines and river gunboats were acquired for the service of the
Amazon River. • The
Air Force was reorganised. Pilot training for jet aircraft began in the United States. • The army participated in literacy campaigns and in carrying out road works. • A special income was established for the Air Force, the
Pisco air base facilities were completed and jet aircraft were acquired. • The
Center for Higher National Studies (CAEM) was created, a higher training center for officers of the Armed Forces, which led to studies of a political-social nature as part of national defence.
Society Many things had changed in relation to Peru at the beginning of the 20th century, socially, the country began a true demographic explosion in the 1940s, where the infant mortality rate would begin to reduce and a relatively high birth rate would be maintained. The country's population doubled in thirty years: from six and a half million in 1940, it reached nine million nine hundred thousand in the 1961 census and up to thirteen and a half million in the 1972 census. This population demanded increasing health services, housing and education, which has since meant fertile ground for populism of any tendency. Odría decided to follow in the footsteps of
Juan Domingo Perón, starting a regime that was both conservative and populist, which was able to maintain itself due to the rise of the Peruvian economy. He tried to attract people from the marginal towns of Lima, with the help of his wife , who also followed in the footsteps of
Eva Perón and managed to increase the social bases of the Odría government. She presided over the Social Assistance Center, founded in 1951 and where care was provided to women and children. She also reformed the electoral system, when on September 7, 1955, she allowed, for the first time in Republican history, the
female vote.
Barriadas Throughout his time as governor, Odría sought to foster "an authoritarian pattern of informal, paternalistic ties that tended to obscure class identification." This approach to elite-mass relations went well with the more general strategy to limit pluralism in Peruvian society. The popular support that APRA and the unions had at that time constitutes an important background to understand the importance that Odría—just as Sánchez Cerro and Benavides had done—gave to obtaining the support of the popular sectors. This led him to provide extensive support for the construction of
barriadas. Instead, he received political support from the new inhabitants of those parts of Lima that served to legitimise his mandate. The fact that even after Odría had left the presidency there were demonstrations of support demonstrates the strong identification of the residents with the president who had helped them establish themselves and that the Odriist strategy of making the poor believe in a special relationship with him had given fruit. The paternalistic aspect of their
barriada policies is expressed in the non-granting of titles, clientelism, the promotion of associations of residents without political demands and large-scale aid programs. Between 1945 and 1948 there was a considerable increase in the size of the invasions. Odría's policies strongly influenced the subsequent development of the political management of the neighbourhoods: this new urban political sector had to be taken into account by the future leaders of the country.
Education The development of national education was focused through three programmes: • The National Education Fund, to finance infrastructure works. • The National Education Plan, aimed at extending education to the entire country. • The School Book Fund. The highest budget percentage of the 20th century was allocated to education, with then Colonel being the main minister in that branch. A curricular reform was implemented, teacher training was attended to, and a vast plan for the construction of premises was executed: large school units (G.U.E.), primary schools, pedagogical institutes, throughout the country. Apart from their good infrastructure, these schools also had a high-quality educational staff. The Ministry of Education was equipped with a
modern building located in front of the
University Park, currently the headquarters of judicial bodies. The implementation of July 6 as "Teacher's Day" also dates from this time. Technical and rural education was the subject of substantial reforms. Various industrial schools in Lima and the provinces were provided with teaching materials. The number of pre-vocational schools, industrial institutes for women and agricultural education centers increased.
Healthcare (1952). • A National Health Fund was created. • Work was made to public health services. The
Hospital of the Employee was built in Lima, conveniently equipped, as did hospitals elsewhere in the country. • Intense environmental sanitation works and campaigns against endemic and epidemic diseases were carried out. • To improve the nutrition of schoolchildren, workers and employees, restaurants and school cafeterias were built.
Labour • The Ministry of Labour and Indigenous Affairs was created to channel workers' claims (1949). Its first officeholder was Armando Artola del Pozo. • The increase in compensation for work accidents by 70% was decreed. • Social security became mandatory for public and private employees. • The compensation regime for length of service was consolidated. • Bonuses for national holidays and Christmas were established, as well as the Sunday salary. • A commission was appointed to prepare the Yanaconaje Law. • Salaries were raised for workers in the civil construction industry in Lima,
Callao and seaside resorts, as well as stevedores at the port of Callao. • The amount of pensions for retirees was raised. • An ambitious policy was carried out to build popular housing for workers and employees throughout the country. The housing units of Matute, Santa Marina and La Perla, in
Lima and Callao, date from then. The Huampaní Vacation Centre was also built for family recreation.
Indigenous affairs • The indigenous communities received technical and credit aid for the development of their agricultural activities. • With the support of
Food and Agriculture Organization,
UNESCO and
World Health Organization, a rehabilitation programme was developed for the
Puno region, then affected by a terrible drought.
Foreign affairs • Due to the emphatic
anti-communism of the military regime, as well as its liberal economic policies, the consequence was the registration of the Peruvian government on the
United States' side of the
Cold War. This happened given that, for the military government to be accepted by the United States, the Odría government had to orient its economy towards free trade and the promotion of exports. • American direct investment skyrocketed under two mechanisms. On the one hand, the Mining Code of 1950, which allowed the emergence of North American mining enclaves in Toquepala and Marcona, increasing foreign control of mining. On the other hand, the Petroleum Law of 1952 allowed the
International Petroleum Company to search for new oil fields in the
Sechura Desert. • Incidents occurred on the
border with Ecuador, because the milestones had not yet been placed in Lagartococha and in the areas adjacent to the
Zamora and Santiago rivers. The government remained unwavering in the face of Ecuadorian claims that sought to redefine the dividing line in said area, violating the
Rio Protocol signed in 1942. • On August 18, 1952, representatives of Peru, Chile and Ecuador signed the "Santiago Declaration" in
Santiago de Chile, protecting the ichthyological wealth within the space of 200 nautical miles, in the face of the threat of depredations by foreign fleets. Subsequently, in December 1955, the plenipotentiaries of the same countries signed the protocol of dccession to said declaration in
Quito. • Economic and cultural collaboration agreements were signed with Brazil, as well as with Chile and Ecuador. • Peru hosted the Pan-American Highway and Inter-American Tourism Congress, the II Ibero-American Social Security Congress and the II Conference on conservation and exploitation of the maritime wealth of the Pacific. • The state of war with
West Germany and Japan was ended, whose delegations acquired the rank of embassies, and diplomatic relations with
Cuba and
Colombia were resumed.
Justice • The Sepa Penal Agricultural Colony was inaugurated in Loreto. • A commission was appointed to reform the organic law of the judiciary. • The Women's Reeducation Center, Workshop and School was inaugurated in
Chorrillos, replacing the old Lima Women's Penitentiary and Departmental Prison. • The judicial career was established. • New chambers were created in the superior courts of Arequipa,
Lambayeque,
Ica and
Huánuco and the Second Correctional Court of Arequipa. • The prisons of Pampas, La Oroya, Huanta, Recuay, Lampa, Yauri and Jumbilla were built.
End Arequipa revolt By 1954 there were already signs of the decomposition of the regime. Accused of being a conspirator, General
Zenón Noriega,
president of the Council of Ministers, considered the number two of the regime, was exiled to the United States. In exchange, in August 1954, Rear Admiral
Roque Augusto Saldías Maninat was appointed, who became head of the Cabinet for the second time. Apparently, when Prado's electoral victory seemed likely, an agreement was reached between Prado and Odría, ensuring that the issue of corruption would not be opened by the new regime. Thus, no investigation was carried out in the following years, despite the fact that the corrupt practices of the Odría regime were publicly denounced in great detail by opposition leaders such as
Héctor Cornejo Chávez. On July 28, 1956,
Manuel Prado y Ugarteche wore the presidential sash, which he received from the president of the Senate, José Gálvez Barrenechea. Thus, the eight-year regime was put to an end. ==Cabinet==