Ho language

Ho has developed into an independent language as a result of various phonological and semantic changes from earlier forms common to North Munda languages. Most notable among these is the loss of intervocalic /ṛ/, leading to vowel length becoming phonemic. A common North Munda verb doho 'to put, to place', Santali do̠ho̠, Mundari dō takes on a vulgar meaning in Ho, many such semantic shifts make conversations with speakers of these related languages difficult. Ho speakers are believed to have entered Singhbhum form the North where Mundari, with two major dialects Hasadaḱ and Naguri is spoken. In terms of affinity, Ho is closer to the Hasadaḱ dialect in most respects, including the mutation of the glottalized final consonant into or . John Hoffmann considers there to be much less difference between Hasadaḱ and Ho than between Hasadaḱ and Naguri. The first published Ho writing by an ethnic Ho is poetry of Kanuram Deogam in 1930. The Latin, Devanagari and Warang Chiti scripts have been used in the field of teaching and learning. Since 1976, the Ho language is being imparted at intermediate and graduate level courses in different colleges under the Ranchi University and Kolhan University. In erstwhile Bihar, the Information and Mass Communication department regularly published Ho articles, folk stories, songs in Devanagari script in a weekly named Adivasi Saptahik. There are significant initiatives inculcated in development of Ho language. A pioneering work was started at Ete Turtung Akhara, Jhinkapani to study and develop the Ho language under the leadership of Lako Bodra with the help of Adi Sanskriti Evam Vigyan Sansthan. The institute published a book in 1963 titled Ho Hayam Paham Puti in Warang Chiti and introduced the letters of Warang Chiti. A. Pathak and N.K. Verma tried to compare the Warang Chiti with Indus script in Echoes of Indus Valley. Sudhanshu Kumar Ray in his 'Indus Script' described that the script Warang Chiti resembles the script of Indus that was discovered by Ashok Pagal and Bulu Imam in the caves of Aswara hill near Baraka village. Xavier Ho Publication, Lupungutu has been publishing Ho books in the Devanagri script. John Deeney published Ho Grammar and Vocabulary in 1975. ==Geographical distribution==

Around half of all Ho speakers reside in West Singhbhum district of Jharkhand, where they form a majority. Ho speakers are also found in districts of East Singhbhum in southern Jharkhand, Mayurbhanj and Keonjhar in northern Odisha. ==Phonology==

Consonants • /b, ɖ/ can be heard as preglottalized [ˀb̥̚, ˀɖ̥̚] when in word-final position. • /b/ can be heard as a fricative [β] in intervocalic positions. • /ɳ/ has a limited phonemic distribution, and is typically a realization of /n/ before retroflex sounds. • /w/ and /j/ only occur in medial or final positions. Vowels Ho has 5 basic vowels, these can be short, long, nasalized and long and nasalized. Long vowels either result from gemination of short vowels resulting from loss of intervocalic consonants or due to the bimoraic constraint inherited from Proto-Munda. ==Grammar==

Like other languages of the Munda family, Ho has a mostly suffixing agglutinative inflectional morphology and follows accusative morphosyntactic alignment. There is some debate on whether Munda languages have word classes, an item from any word class can function as a verb in Ho. Ho does not have relative pronouns natively and relies on the participle forms of verbs, the forms that includes aspect, object and transitivity, but no mood markers, to form relative clauses. Nouns and noun phrases Number, possession and case suffixes are added to nouns. Alienable and inalienable possessions are distinguished. Number and possession Ho distinguishes singular, dual and plural numbers. Number suffixes are generally written separate from base nouns. Number and inalienable possession Construction for alienable possessions is different form inalienable possessions, "That woman's threshing floor", and "That woman's aunt". Suffixes for inalienable possessions only occur in the singular. Pronouns Ho personal pronoun distinguish inclusive and exclusive first person and anaphoric and demonstrative third person. Numerals Short forms are used in compound words, general counting and counting money, the long forms are used when counting specific objects. Postpositions Particles Verbs There is no restrictions as to which word may occupy the role of a verb. Therefore, even proper nouns may act as verbs, Lako ket́ińako, 'They named me Lako'. Verbs may be serialized or modified with affixes before being put in this verb template: Verb stem + (Aspect marker) + (Transitive/Intransitive marker) + (Object pronoun) + (Mood marker) + (Subject pronoun) The verb stem may be modified in the following ways: • presence of a transitivity marker indicates past tense and the absence non-past. • ken is only used in its original function as an intransitive with a small number of verbs, like oṛa 'to bathe' and sen 'to go', it has now been extended even to transitive verbs, where it shifts the focus from the object of the verb to the subject. • intransitive counterpart of the ingressive yan is lost in Ho, while being maintained in Mundari as yada/jada and in Santali as eda. ean maintains ingressive meaning only with a limited number of verbs, it mostly functions as the intransitive counterpart of aorist ket́. • tan is conjugated differently than other aspect markers, where the object marker occurs right before tan, rather than after the transitivity marker, enabling it to be used even on transitive verbs, where it has taken over the function of tat́ with many verbs, as in gama tat́ać vs. gamaè tanać, both having the same meaning with the latter being more common. With a number of transitive verbs, tan and tat́ contrast and produce progressive-continuous distinction, tusiṅ tat́ać, 'he is wearing' (continuous aspect), tusiṅè tanać, 'he (now) is (in the process of) wearing it' (progressive aspect). • benefactive stem with -a cannot take any of the aspect markers, it can only take a transitivity marker, limiting its occurrence either with the past or the non-past tense. == Vocabulary ==

Most of the Ho basic vocabulary is of Munda origin, with cognates in other Kherwarian languages, undated old borrowings from Indo-Aryan languages also exist, such as kolom, 'threasing floor', datarom 'a sickle', sutam 'a thread', gotom 'ghee' and parkom 'a cot'. In recent years, increased number of words from Hindi, English and Odia have been entering the language due to increased contact. Ho numbers are almost entirely out of practical use, being supplanted by Hindi numbers, except for one, two and three. Ho lexicon reflects close association with nature, including numerous onomatopoeias arising from cries of different animals along with 'expressives' to describe sounds in nature. Ho, like other Kherwarian languages, has lexical differentiation in many of its verbs, whereby different words exist to express distinctions within a single concept. For example, maḱ 'to cut with a striking motion', hat́ 'to cut with a sawing motion', ir 'to reap with a sickle', get́ 'to cut with cutting tool being stationary', paaḱ 'to split firewood with an axe', laṭaṕ 'to clip hair etc.', hese 'to clear branches etc. by cutting', banḍić 'to cut the extremities', topaṅ/tobaṅ 'to sever with a single striking motion', samaḱ 'to cut into small pieces'. Many words are derived using affixes. ==Writing system==

Ho has been written in various scripts, starting from the first written record of 1824 to the present day, mostly using the Latin alphabet, Devanagari, Odia and more recently using the Warang Chiti script. Most writing done in Jharkhand tends to use the Devanagari script, while in Odisha it is the Odia script. While community intellectuals have been promoting the usage of Warang Chiti, it is yet to be widely used among Ho people due to it not being a part of school education. In 1985, a committee consisting of intellectuals including Ram Dayal Munda and Bhagey Gobardhan deliberated on common script for Ho, and decided in favor of Warang Chiti, eliminating competition from scripts put forth by other inventors such as Sangram Sindhu's Owar Anka Gār Lipi, disseminated by an institution called Sindhu Jumur, Rohidas Singh Nag's Mundari Bani Hisir Champa, Raghunath Purty's Ho Ol Lipi, Purushottam Godsora's Srishti Lipi among others. ==Sample Text==

The following text is Article 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, written in Ho: Warang Chiti Script Devanagari Script IPA transcription sɐbin mʌnmi koɐː hijʌt̪iŋ ənɖoː ekt̪ijɐɾ ko ɾejɐː mʌmle re ɟonomeeː t̪eɡe d̪ɐnʌmul ənɖoː bɐɾɐbɐɾi ɾejɐː nɐmʌ kənʌ. iniku budwi ənɖoː ɟibon bit̪ɐɾ ɾejɐː enem nɐmʌ kənʌ ənɖoː ɐko ɐko ɾe hɐɡejʌ bohɐjʌ ɾejɐː ɟibon uɖuː t̪eko ɟʌnʌɡɐɾ t̪ejɐː doɾkɐr. Alternative version (Ho Latin) Honoo sanam raate anḍoḱ Tingunum· Tíjoṅ mipit́teko unduṕ akana. Urumsẽa· Jivmet́'ko emvan te, Hagaea Mepen loḱko ripika enaṅà. IPA transcription honoː sanam raːte anɖoʔ tiŋgunum tiːd͡ʑoŋ mipiˀt̚teko undubakana. urumsẽa jiːmeˀt̚ko eman te, hageja mepen loʔko ripikɛ enaŋaʔ. English All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood. ==Usage==

Under the Multilingual Education (MLE) programme, Odisha government has been providing primary education in Ho speaking areas. National Eligibility Test conducted by the University Grants Commission of India includes Ho literature along with literature from other tribal languages under Tribal and Regional Language/Literature subject. In Odisha and Jharkhand, Education in Ho at the primary level was introduced in 20 and 449 schools respectively and about 44,502 tribal students are pursuing their studies in the language. For the past few years, All India Radio (AIR) has been airing Ho programs from centres in Keonjhar, Rourkela and Cuttack besides Baripada in Mayurbhanj. Regular programs in Ho are broadcast from Chaibasa and Jamshedpur AIR centres. Similarly, regional news bulletins are broadcast two days a week from AIR Ranchi. • Kolhan University, Chaibasa, Jharkhand Educational institutions The following educational institutions offer courses on Ho: • Ho Language Education Council, Thakurmunda, Mayurbhanj, Odisha • Ho Language +2 Junior College, Thakurmunda, Mayurbhanj, Odisha • Kolguru Lako Bodra Ho Language High school, Birbasa, Bhubaneswar, Odisha • Banajyoti Bahubhasi Vidya Mandir, Purunapai, Deogorh, Odisha • Veer Birsa Warangchity Mondo, Rairangpur, Mayurbhanj, Odisha • Birsa Munda Ho Language High school, Jamunalia, Keonjhar, Odisha • Padmashree Tulasi Munda Ho Language High School, Machhgorh, Keonjhar, Odisha • Kol guru Lako Bodra Ho Language High School, Dobati, Balasore, Odisha • Birsa Munda Ho Language High School, Nuagaon, Mayurbhanj, Odisha • Atteh Turtung Rumtulay mondo, singda, Mayurbhanj, Odisha • Bankipirh Marshal Mondo, Bankidihi, Mayurbhanj, Odisha • Similipal Baa bagan mondo, Thakurmapatna, Mayurbhanj, Odisha • Kolguru Lako Bodra Ho Language High School, Gokul Chandra pur, Mayurbhanj, Odisha • Birsa Munda Ho Language High School, Hadagutu, Mayurbhanj, Odisha • Kolhan High School, Satakosia, Mayurbhanj, Odisha • Guru Lako Bodra Ho Language High School, Thakurmunda, Mayurbhanj, Odisha • Ho Hayam Seyannoh Moond, Madkamhatu, Mayurbhanj, Odisha • Sitadevi Warang chiti(𑢹𑣗𑣁𑣜𑣊 𑢯𑣂𑣕𑣂) Moond, Khunta, Mayurbhanj, Odisha • P.C.Haibru Warang chiti(𑢹𑣗𑣁𑣜𑣊 𑢯𑣂𑣕𑣂) School, Kadadiha, Mayurbhanj, Odisha ==Literature==

• Ho folk literature's collection of folk songs by Sharatchandra Rai, Dr. D.N. Majumdar, B. Sukumar, Haldhaar, Kanhuram Devgum etc. (1915–26). • Tuturd, Sayan Marsal by Dr. S.K. Tiyu. • The Affairs of a Tribe by Dr. D.N. Majumdaar. • Aandi and Sarjom Ba Dumba by Jaidev Das. • Ho Durang by W.G. Archer. • Folklore of Kolhaan by C.H. Bompaas. • Sengail (Poems), Satish Rumul (Poems), Ho Chapakarh Kahin, Satish Chandra Sanhita, and Chaas Raiy Takh by Satish Kumar Koda. • Dishum Rumul Mage Durudh by Shivcharan Birua. • Adivasi Sivil Durang, Adivasi Deyoan, Adivasi Muni and Urri Keda Kova Red-Ranu by Durga Purti. • Bonga Buru Ko (Ho Religion), Horoh Hoan Ko, Maradh Bonga, and Gosain-Devgum Mage Poraab (on Maage Parv) by Pradhan Gagrai. • Warangchiti (on 𑢹𑣗𑣁𑣜𑣊 𑢯𑣂𑣕𑣂), Pompo, Shaar Hora 1-7 (Play), Raghuvansh (Play), Kol ruul(Hindi and Ho(𑢹𑣗𑣁𑣜𑣊 𑢯𑣂𑣕𑣂) , Homoyom pitika, Hora-Bara, Ho Hayam paam puti, Halang halpung, Ela ol itu ute, Jiboan * * Gumpai Durang, Baa buru Bonga buru and Bonga Singirai (Novel) by Ot Guru Kol Lako Bodra. • Ho Kudih (Novel) by Dumbi Ho. • Ho Kudih (Novel) and Adhunik Ho Shishth Kawya by Prof. Janum Singh Soy. • Jaira Jeebon Dastur, Durrn Dudugar, and Ho Bhasha Shastra Ayun Vyakaran by Prof. Balram Paat Pingua. • Ho Dishum Ho Hoon Ko by Dhanusingh Purti. • Eitaa Bataa Nalaa Basaa, Joaur, Parem Sanadh (Poems), Sarjom Ba Taral, etc. By Kamal Lochan Kohaar. • Ho Lokkatha by Dr. Aditya Prasad Sinha. • Magazines like Johar, Turturd, Ottoroad, and Sarnaphool also have Ho language articles. • Ho Language Digital Journal "Diyang" • Ho Language monthly journal"Dostur Korang"by Kairasingh Bandiya • Ho Kaboy (Poem) poti "Tangi Meyanj Sorogo Kore" by Ghanshyam Bodra • Ho language song"Dureng Dala"by Dibakar Soy • Ho language learning books "Ol initu" and "Mage Porob"by Kairasingh Bandiya" • Ho hayam sibil dureng(Ho and Hindi) by Doboro Buliuli ==Demand for inclusion in the Eighth Schedule==

Apart from the Ho peoples themselves, the governments of Odisha and Jharkhand have been making demands for Ho to be included in the Eighth Schedule to the Constitution of India. Rajya Sabha member and Union Petroleum and Steel Minister Dharmendra Pradhan had also submitted a memorandum demanding that the Government of India include Ho in the Constitution to give it an official status.The same request has also been made by the Department of Personnel, Jharkhand. Former Home Minister Rajnath Singh had assured that Ho would be included in the eighth schedule, said union minister Dharmendra Pradhan. Erstwhile Jharkhand Chief Minister Hemant Soren has written to the Home Ministry for the inclusion of Ho into the Eighth Schedule of the Indian Constitution. ==Further reading==