Feudal dynasties 's weapon rack, dated 1650–1679 AD.
Đại Việt has a relatively early history of using gunpowder weapons. At the end of the 14th century, king Po Binasuor of
Champa, while surveying the
Hải Triều River, died in battle when he was hit by a
hand cannon from the
Trần army. In the
Hồ dynasty,
Hồ Nguyên Trừng successfully invented the Thần Cơ Sang cannon. By the time of the
Lê Sơ period, gunpowder weapons was widely used in the army. In Thailand, a gun initially thought to have originated in China was discovered, however, based on the inscriptions on the gun, it was confirmed to be of Đại Việt origin. This is most likely a relic from the invasion of the
Lanna kingdom (present day Chiang Mai) under
Lê Thánh Tông from 1479 to 1484. By the 16th century, when Europeans came to Đại Việt for trading, Western weapons were purchased by the
Trịnh and
Nguyễn lords to equip their armies, and muskets began to be imported into Đại Việt ever since.
Tomé Pires in his
Suma Oriental (1515) mentioned that
Cochinchina had an innumerable number of
musketeers and small
bombards, and that a lot of gunpowder was used in warfare and amusements. At that time, the firearm techniques of Đại Việt were considered highly advanced — from small-caliber matchlock guns to cannons. Firearms were also widely used by civilians in daily life.The Đại Việt musket was not only used domestically, but it was also introduced to China after the border conflicts between the
Mạc dynasty and ethnic minorities in
Guangxi and
Yunnan. The
Jiaozhi arquebus was not only appreciated by the
Chinese, but also highly praised especially by Western observers for its high accuracy from what they saw in the
Lê-Mạc and
Trịnh-Nguyễn wars. The Ming dynasty also rated Đại Việt arquebus as "the best gun in the world", even surpassing the Ottoman gun, the Japanese gun, and the European gun.The Đại Việt gun could penetrate several layers of iron armor and kill from 2 to 5 people with one single bullet while not emitting any loud sounds when fired. A Qing-era record, 南越筆記 (Nányuè bǐjì), linked the Vietnam arquebus with Java arquebus. However, later on, due to the country's isolationist policies, firearm casting techniques gradually declined and became outdated. By the
Nguyễn dynasty, although the guns produced had impressive appearances and large calibers, they were far less effective compared to French models. === Resistance against French Colonial and
Empire of Japan (1885-1945) === In the Can Vuong movement, the majority of the resistance troops used homemade flintlock guns and rudimentary weapons, but in there on Hương Khê Uprising, Vietnamese general in the Cần Vương movement, Cao Văn Thắng, managed to copy the design of "
an 1874 type fast-firing rifle of French". However, the Vietnamese version did not have a rifled barrel, and the range was limited. During the
Bai Say uprising, the small factory engineers of the insurgents also boldly improved the guns of the French army, or based on the French gun models to manufacture guns suitable for disguised battles, hiding guns on the person, in bundles of firewood: “… In order to achieve high efficiency, they created a remarkable gun: the Mút (
Berthier rifle Vietnamese called) cavalry gun with a short stock, long barrel, this gun can be hidden in the sleeve, in the trouser leg or on the chest. This leader (referring to Doi Van) in a short time of surrender also told us that there were many other gun models” In the early 1940s, the Cao–Bac–Lang Provincial Party Committee mobilized villagers to set up forges making knives, spears, swords, and
flintlock gun, laying the foundation for a self-sufficient arms industry. In March 1944, the Lung Hoang workshop was established with only rudimentary tools and donated scrap metal but soon became a key site for repairing and producing mines and grenades. After initial experiments with simple tin-cased grenades and unsuccessful mines, it successfully reverse-engineered American-style cast-iron grenades stamped “V.M.” (stand for
Viet Minh) and repaired various firearms. Following Party instructions, the Northern Regional Party Committee created the Lang Chè weapons factory in
Tiên Sơn,
Bắc Ninh, which not only repaired small arms but also mass-produced stamped cast-iron grenades marked “V.M.” for liberation forces, contributing directly to the
August Revolution of 1945. These early workshops pioneered small, mobile, easily relocatable production, a model that by late 1947 had expanded to around 200 facilities with 20,000 workers, supplying millions of weapons—from grenades and mortars to recoilless guns—forming the technological and organizational backbone of Vietnam's wartime arms industry and earning recognition even from French observers for their unexpected strength and effectiveness. On May 7, 1944, based on the policy of the Party Central Committee, the Viet Minh General Department issued a directive to prepare for the uprising, which clearly stated: what to use to fight the enemy? There were several ways to get weapons: self-made, bought and seized from the enemy. Our people had to make some of their own weapons so that when they rose up, they would have something to kill the enemy. What they could not make themselves had to be bought or seized from the enemy. To buy, they organized donations and set up a "gun purchase fund". As for seizing the enemy's property, there were two ways: attacking enemy camps, gun depots, and patrol troops to seize weapons and mobilizing enemy soldiers, making them aware, and bringing the enemy's guns back to us.
First Indochina War Vietnam's modern defence industry traces its roots to the
First Indochina War (1946–1954) and the
Vietnam War (1955–1975), when the country (then North Vietnam) established rudimentary arms workshops to support its military efforts. During this period, Vietnamese technicians produced basic munitions, homemade explosives, and refurbished captured equipment to supplement supplies from abroad. During the resistance war against the French, due to limited access to foreign weapon supplies, most of Vietnam's weapons came either from spoils of war captured after battles or from military workshops located in safe zones. During this period, the primary task of Vietnam's military industry was to research and produce anti-tank weapons based on
bazooka models seized from French forces. This task was assigned to a research team led by
Trần Đại Nghĩa, a Vietnamese engineer who had returned from
France. The work began in November 1946 and continued until February 1947, with the resulting weapons tested in combat during the war against the French, and later deployed in the
Việt Bắc Campaign of 1947. The research team also successfully developed
recoilless rifles designated as SKZ, with calibers of 60mm, 81mm and 120mm. These weapons were widely used by
Việt Minh units throughout the war. In addition, the Việt Minh also produced a large quantity of explosives such as landmines and grenades in military workshops located in liberated zones. These weapons were manufactured using cast iron sourced from metallurgy facilities in
Interzone IV, and explosives repurposed from bombs and unexploded ordnance left behind by French forces. Although rudimentary, these weapons were widely used in ambush operations conducted by guerrilla units and inflicted significant damage on French troops. At other infantry weapons workshops, the military also produced a number of improvised small arms, notably submachine guns modeled after the
Sten gun, Grease gun (súng Ghít in Vietnamese), as well as various types of pistols like Enfield No2. In addition, infantry ammunition was also manufactured on a small scale in these military workshops at the time.
Vietnam War During this period, several factories in the
Democratic Republic of Vietnam such as Z1, Z2 and X10 —precursors to today's Z111, Z113 and Z117 factories — were established with the goal of producing domestically manufactured weapons. These facilities were built with technical and logistical support from socialist countries, marking an important step in laying the industrial foundation for Vietnam's long-term defense self-sufficiency. These factories began producing a limited number of light weapons such as
SKS,
AK-47,
RPG-2 and TUL-1 light machine guns in Factory Z1. In addition, infantry ammunition was produced on a larger scale at facilities such as Factory Z113 and Factory Z114, contributing significantly to the logistical needs of the People's Army of Vietnam. Nonetheless, the bulk of heavy arms – from rifles to artillery and aircraft – were provided by socialist allies, and the indigenous industrial base remained limited in scope and technology. In 1965, as the
United States escalated its
bombing campaign against the North, the resistance war for the liberation of the South entered a highly intense phase. The demand for weapon production increased both in quantity and urgency. On July 13, 1965,
China signed an agreement to assist Vietnam in expanding the Z1 and Z2 factories, followed by the construction of eight additional military industry facilities to support weapons production. From these efforts emerged the precursors to factories such as Z115, Z121, and Z129. At this time, weapons production activities in the southern battlefield of Vietnam were relatively rudimentary. They primarily focused on manufacturing improvised weapons such as landmines and grenades, along with limited production of copied firearms based on captured models such as the
M1911 pistol and
MAT-49 submachine gun. Some workshops also modified captured weapons to be compatible with ammunition supplied by allied countries or adapted firearms such as the M1 Garand to suit specific battlefield conditions. And any copy and modified gun like
Thompson submachine gun,
MAS-36 rifle,
M1 Carbine,
Arisaka,
Mauser rifle,
Tokarev TT,
Mauser C96,
Luger P08,
BAR, and
SVT-40.
1975 to 2000 In the post-war period, particularly after the reunification of the country in 1975, the Vietnamese military redirected its focus toward upgrading existing weaponry and establishing greater self-reliance in defense research and production. This shift was driven by both strategic necessity and the limited access to external military aid due to shifting global alliances. Key efforts included the development of indigenous military technologies and the modernization of aging Soviet-era equipment. Among the notable achievements during this period were the TL-1 reconnaissance aircraft and the HL-1 and HL-2 trainer aircraft. These projects were seen as important milestones in demonstrating Vietnam's growing aerospace engineering capabilities. Designed and manufactured domestically, these aircraft incorporated locally developed airframes and systems, although their engines were still imported from foreign partners due to technological limitations. The successful deployment of these aircraft underscored the potential of Vietnam's defense industry to support basic aviation requirements. In parallel with aircraft development, research institutes under the
Ministry of Defense were also assigned to upgrade missile systems. One of the most significant efforts involved enhancing the performance of
Scud tactical ballistic missiles, which had been supplied by the
Soviet Union. Vietnamese scientists worked to improve both the range and accuracy of these missile systems, reflecting a broader effort to extend the country's strategic deterrence capabilities with limited resources. This period laid the foundation for later advances in localized weapons production and contributed to Vietnam's long-term goal of building an independent and modern defense industry. In addition, the military undertook technical maintenance and refurbishment of captured equipment acquired during the war, such as
M16 rifles,
M113 armored personnel carriers, and other American-origin weaponry. Due to embargoes in place at the time, Vietnam had no access to original spare parts or technical documentation for these systems. As a result, engineers and technicians adapted by reverse-engineering components and substituting parts with those sourced from Soviet equipment. In some cases, major assemblies such as engines or mechanical subsystems were replaced entirely with Soviet-compatible alternatives. During this period, Vietnam also purchased propellant and explosive production lines from
North Korea. These lines were installed at factories Z113 and Z114, serving as a foundation for the eventual complete mastery of infantry ammunition production. Some sources also mention that, during this period, Vietnam was transferred technologies enabling the production of
ballistic missiles such as the
Hwasong-6.
2000 to now Since the year 2000, Vietnam's defense industry has seen significant development, transitioning from a reliance on imported weaponry to becoming increasingly self-sufficient through international cooperation and indigenous technological innovation. This article highlights key accomplishments, including Vietnam's defense partnerships, particularly with Israel and Russia, domestic developments such as the VCM-01 cruise missile, UAVs, advanced radars, naval vessel production, and modernization of production facilities.
International Cooperation in Defense Vietnam's defense modernization has been underpinned by extensive international cooperation. Instead of just buying finished weapons, Vietnam often pursues co-production, joint development, and technology transfer agreements with partner countries. Each of these partnerships focuses on enabling Vietnamese factories to eventually produce or assemble the equipment at home, reflecting a consistent strategy of “learning by doing.” Furthermore, Israel and Vietnam cooperated to upgrade older Soviet-era equipment, notably the T-54/55 tanks. The modernized T-54M3 variant featured advanced fire control systems, reactive armor, and a 105mm main gun, greatly enhancing the capabilities of these older platforms. The project stopped because of high cost.
Collaboration with Russia Russia remains Vietnam's traditional defense partner, significantly contributing to its naval capabilities through technology transfers. Through the KCT-15 project, Russia provided Vietnam with support in maintaining and ensuring the technical readiness of the
Kh-35 missile, laying the groundwork for Vietnam to develop and manufacture its own missile, the
VCM-01.Russia has supported Vietnam in the field of military transport vehicles by establishing factories for military vehicle production in Vietnam, such as
KamAZ,
UAZ, and
GAZ. Russia also transferred technology to Vietnam for the production of
Igla man-portable air-defense systems (MANPADS).
Other countries Besides Russia and Israel, Vietnam also cooperated with Belarus, and the Netherlands. Belarus aided Vietnam in developing advanced radar systems, specifically the RV-series capable of detecting stealth aircraft base on theirs Vostok-E. Additionally, Vietnam has cooperated in technology transfer with Dixi Microtechniques, a private French company specializing in precision mechanics and mechatronics. This collaboration has enabled factories such as Z181, Z129, and Z121 to fully master the production of electronic fuzes for various types of artillery shells. Serbia is also a partner of Vietnam, having transferred the technology for the Edepro G2000/52 rocket to the country, which allows it to manufacture extended-range rockets for the
BM-21 system.
The Netherlands, though not a traditional arms supplier to Vietnam, has been instrumental in naval shipbuilding cooperation. Dutch shipbuilder
Damen Group entered a joint venture with Vietnam's
Shipbuilding Industry Corporation in 2007, and by 2014 Damen had opened the Song Cam shipyard in
Haiphong – a modern facility initially capable of producing up to 40 vessels annually. Through this partnership, Damen has supplied the
Vietnam People's Navy and
Coast Guard with several modern vessels. By 2022, Vietnamese-Damen cooperation had yielded at least one naval survey ship, four large offshore patrol vessels (OPVs), and four salvage tugs – all built in Vietnam to Damen designs. These include the 2,200-ton DN2000-class OPVs which significantly enhanced the Coast Guard's blue-water patrol capacity. ==Today's Vietnamese defense industry==