House church (China)

In contemporary China, house churches are often of significant size, do not operate in houses, and operate openly. Some scholars prefer to use terms such as "unregistered church" to speak about the Protestant phenomenon, because these groups can reach several hundred and do not always literally meet in someone's home. Academic Yanfei Sun suggests "independent protestant church". While these groups are sometimes described as "underground churches" (), this term is generally associated with Catholic assemblies who have chosen to operate independently from the state-sanctioned Catholic Patriotic Association and the Chinese Catholic Bishops' Conference. K. H. Ting, one of the key leaders of the TSPM and the CCC for many years, did not like the term "house church" and preferred to use the term "house gathering" (). This was because he found designations such as "house church" and "official church" as returning to the pre-Cultural Revolution practice of denominationalism. Moreover, as a result of the rapid urbanization of China since the 1990s, there has been a growing development within urban Christianity. Some congregations have preferred to self-identify as being part of a "third church" to differentiate from both traditional house churches and TSPM churches. ==History==

In 1949, the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) gained control of mainland China and established the People's Republic of China (PRC). Shortly thereafter, well-known Christian leader Y. T. Wu authored and published "The Christian Manifesto", which publicly supported the CCP's policy of overseeing the church for the sake of national unity and progress and called on all Protestant Christians to follow suit. In the 1950s, Wu successfully oversaw the signing of "The Christian Manifesto" by roughly half of the Protestant population across China. He also played a key role in creating and leading the Three-Self Patriotic Movement (TSPM), a state-sanctioned governing body for Protestant Christianity in China. However, China's independent churches, championed by Wang Ming-Dao, strongly resisted the TSPM both for its allegiance to a political entity and its liberal theological leanings. As a result of their refusal to join with the TSPM, an entire generation of China's independent pastors were severely persecuted and their churches forced to close. These resistant churches often began meeting in undisclosed locations, such as individual homes or fields, thus gaining the name "house church". Despite the TSPM's efforts to maintain a good relationship with the CCP, it too was eventually dismantled and persecuted during the Cultural Revolution (19661976) so that all Christian practice in China became persecuted and hidden. During the period from the 1950s to 1970s, the strongest house church networks could be found in China's countryside. Due to the changes in religious policy after the end of the Cultural Revolution, in 1980, the Three-Self Patriotic Movement would be reinstated and the China Christian Council would be formed. Protestant congregations that wished to worship publicly registered with the TSPM, but those that did not would eventually be termed house churches. The rapid urbanization has also resulted in migration to China's urban centers and the rise of urban house churches. Some of these have developed through migrant worker communities and university students. Other new communities can be seen among urban intellectuals and entrepreneurs, the latter termed "boss Christians" (). After the beginning of the Hu-Wen administration, house churches increasingly operated openly, and have been able to build churches and display religious symbols, becoming increasingly similar in outward appearance to state-sanctioned churches. House churches and their members have faced more frequent crackdowns during the annual Two Sessions. In October 2025, the Chinese government arrested dozens of Zion Church members in Beijing, Shanghai, Shenzhen, and other cities. In January 2026, the authorities arrested leaders of the Early Rain Covenant Church. Western evangelical Christian groups express interest in Christianizing China and support the development of independent Protestant churches. Western media and human rights advocacy groups likewise express support for independent Protestant churches. Western politicians expressing support for independent Protestant churches in China may be motivated to do so by factors including personal conviction, responding to lobbying efforts, appealing to voters or other supporters, or to develop leverage in international relations with China. == Legality ==

House churches in China are generally considered illegal, yet smaller house churches of less than 25 members tend to be tolerated by the government. However, some have grown to a fairly large size, such as the Shouwang Church which reached 1,000 members at its height. House churches today still experience persecution, though the situation tends to differ depending on the region. American political scientist Carsten T. Vala argues that house churches are subject to persecution when they cross red lines, which include, apart from size, rapid growth, active proselytization, the attempt to form national networks, contacts with foreign Christian organization, and criticism of the government. House churches are often reluctant to become official by joining the state-sanctioned Three-Self Patriotic Movement (TSPM). In addition to accepting the worrying institutional memory of government use of the TSPM to suppress churches during the 1950s, groups joining the TSPM would have to agree to limits on the time and location of religious activities, among other restrictions. Some house churches, however, submit their activities for government approval in an attempt to follow the law as closely as possible while remaining independent. In some instances, authorities have allowed such house churches to continue to operate. In others, officials have arrested pastors, congregants, and others affiliated with the targeted congregations, and have even gone so far as the destruction of buildings used for worship. == Pentecostal characteristics ==

The first Pentecostal missionaries arrived in China shortly after the Azusa Street Revival as part of groups such as the Christian and Missionary Alliance, the China Inland Mission, the Pentecostal Missionary Union, and the Assemblies of God. These groups would also be instrumental in inspiring the creation of indigenous Pentecostal groups, such as the True Jesus Church and the Jesus Family. Today, Chinese house churches are commonly described as being Pentecostal or charismatic. This is often the case due to the experience of miraculous healing. According to some surveys, 90% of converts to Protestant Christianity, in both house churches and TSPM churches, cite healing as a reason for their conversion. However, a number of scholars have attempted to reconsider this description, using phrases such as "Pentecostal-like" or "Pentecostal characteristics" to indicate this ambiguity. The Assemblies of God theologian Simon Chan argues that "an adequate definition of Pentecostalism cannot be restricted to phenomenological description" – that is, based on experiences. Chan continues to explain that classical Pentecostal beliefs such as Spirit-baptism and speaking in tongues are not prevalent in Chinese churches, when compared with miraculous healing. Edmond Tang has pointed out that only a few groups, like the True Jesus Church and the Jesus Family, can trace themselves back to missionaries coming from Pentecostal denominations. Some have described this as a folk religionization of Christianity. The hymnal Canaan Hymns, rich in pneumatological themes, is widely used. ==Similar organization in other religions==

While foreign media often focus discussion about house churches mainly with relation to Protestantism, other religious traditions in China have chosen a similar form of organization. These include house assemblies of Han Chinese following Tibetan Buddhism, led by lamas and tulkus, Buddhist and Baháʼí Faith study groups, unregistered Zhengyi and vernacular forms of Taoism, and various folk religious groupings such as Yiguandao. == References ==