Hypericum androsaemum

Hypericum androsaemum is a small bushy shrub, reaching tall. It has many stems which remain upright and erect instead of creeping over the ground. It has many oval-shaped leaves along its stems which are typically green with a red tint. The leaves have small glands on their surface that can be seen upon close inspection; these are filled with a red pigment. The plant has yellow flowers 1.5–2.5 cm in diameter with five petals and numerous stamens. Uniquely among Hypericum, its berries turn from red to black and remain soft and fleshy even after ripening. The plant's stems are cylindrical in shape when the plant is mature. There are other translucent glands that are dispersed throughout the mesophyll at differing depths. There are four or five symmetrical pairs of main veins along the leaf that point in the direction of the tip. The berries measure 7–12 mm long and 6–8 mm wide with thin casings. The seeds inside are a reddish-brown color. Many of these essential oils and other phenolic compounds are present in higher quantities while the flowers are still growing. While less studied than the leaves of the plant, the berries of H. androsaemum are rich in chemical constituents as well. Many of these constituents are found in higher densities (or only) while the fruits are red. The most present chemicals are chlorogenic acid, shikimic acid, rutin, epicatechin, and hyperoside. Similar species Hypericum androsaemum is similar in appearance to the other species in section Androsaemum. It can be told apart from H. foliosum and H. × inodorum by its shorter styles, the unique black color of its ripe berries, and that its petals are never longer than its sepals. In addition to the species of section Androsaemum, it is highly similar to H. xylosteifolium, the sole species in section Inodorum. The most apparent morphological difference between it and H. xylosteifolium is that the seed capsules (berries) of the latter species dry completely when they are mature, whereas those of H. androsaemum remain soft and fleshy. The berries of H. androsaemum only dry if they are left on the plant for around a month after ripening, and will begin to wither at that same time. File:Hypericum_foliosum.JPG|H. foliosum File:Hypericum_inodorum_'Golden_Beacon'_J1.jpg|H. × inodorum File:Hypericum_androsaemum2.jpg|H. androsaemum == Taxonomy ==

Hypericum androsaemum is the type species of the small section Hypericum sect. Androsaemum. The species' placement within Hypericum can be summarized as follows: Hypericum : 'Hypericum subg. Hypericum' :: 'Hypericum sect. Androsaemum' ::: H. androsaeumum – H. foliosum – H. grandifolium – H. hircinum – H. × inodorum Nomenclature The genus name Hypericum derives from the Greek words hyper, meaning above, and eikon, meaning picture. This refers to the practice of hanging the flower "above pictures" to ward off evil spirits. The specific epithet androsaemum comes from the Greek word androsaemus, which was used to describe plants with red sap. It is a combination of the words andros, meaning man, and haima, meaning blood. The common name tutsan is French in origin, and derives from the phrase , which means heal-all, in reference to the plant's medicinal properties. While Hypericum androsaemum is the most well-known plant named tutsan, other species share that common name. For example, H. xylosteifolium is called "Turkish tutsan" and H. hircinum is called "Stinking tutsan". History Hypericum androsaemum was known and studied long before the modern system of taxonomy was developed. The species was first formally described in the modern system by Carl Linnaeus. He described the species as Hypericum androsaemum in the second volume of his Species Plantarum in 1763 alongside around twenty other Hypericum species. Compiling several brief notes from other authorities, Linnaeus gave the following description for the plant:In the same entry, Linnaeus noted the species' presence in England and its tendency to be found around fences. it was placed into a separate genus called Androsaemum as recently as 1893. In 1796, the garden of Chapel Allerton published a list of their plant specimens, noting Hypericum androsaemum as being in their collection, along with the fact it had been described by Linnaeus. However, they still applied two superfluous names (Androsaemum floridum and Hypericum floridum) to their specimens; these names were never accepted as legitimate. The status of Hypericum androsaemum was definitively resolved with Norman Robson's comprehensive monograph of the genus Hypericum in 1996. Robson established 36 sections within the genus which grouped together very similar species. He designated H. androsaemum as the type species of sect. Androsaemum and clarified its lectotype specimen. Because the actual type specimen that Linnaeus analyzed was not preserved, Robson selected an illustration from Hortus Cliffortianus, which Linnaeus would have at least seen, to serve as the lectotype for the species. Subdivision Hypericum androsaemum exhibits a great deal of variation in appearance, especially in cultivation. When this variation is deliberately brought out through selective breeding, the resulting forms are called "cultivars"; however, when populations develop unique traits on their own while in cultivation, those populations can be described by a legitimate botanical name. In the case of H. androsaemum, two such names have been given: H. androsaemum var. aureum has yellow-green leaves, and H. androsaemum f. variegatum has variegated leaves. In the wild, H. androsaemum exhibits a similarly wide range of physical traits. Larger-flowered plants tend to have red-tinted leaves and larger fruits; smaller-flowered plants have greener leaves and smaller fruits. These traits are not binary, though, and there is a continuous spectrum of forms that link those two extremes wherever they are found. Thus, no legitimate names are given to any of these forms. == Distribution and habitat ==

The species has a wide native distribution, but is most densely found in Western Europe. It is particularly abundant across the British Isles (except for in the Scottish Highlands), in the Ardennes forest of Belgium and France, and on the western French coast. Other European populations include the Pyrenees Mountains, across northern Spain and Portugal, and around Genoa and parts of central Italy. Scattered sightings have been reported through Germany and as far north as Denmark, as well as in Switzerland, Austria, and the Balkans. Outside of Europe, H. androsaemum is found in northern Turkey, the North African coast, the Caucasus, and Iran. While it may have at one point been native to the island of Corsica, it is now believed to be extinct there. Hypericum androsaemum has become naturalized or invasive in regions to which it is not native. In Australia, it is densely found in the Otway Ranges, South Gippsland Hills, Dandenong Ranges, the Blue Mountains, and in the area around Mansfield. There are also a few scattered populations on Tasmania, but it is not troublesome there. In New Zealand, it is found on both islands frequently enough to be an encroaching weed. The plant is found in damp and shady areas at a great range of elevations, from low-lying regions up to . It requires heavy rainfall, typically greater than of annual precipitation. == Ecology ==

larva on a flower of H. androsaemum Seeds of H. androsaemum germinate in the fall. They flower when the plant is between 18 and 24 months old, typically from late spring to early summer, with the fruit ripening by late summer. The plant is partially deciduous, losing most of its foliage in the fall but with rapid regrowth every spring. == Cultivation ==

When cultivated, Hypericum androsaemum requires minimal maintenance. The species is generally pest and disease free, and is deer resistant. However, it can be prone to nematodes, which cause root rot; pest insects such as thrips and scale have been noted. Additionally, in hot and humid climates the species is susceptible to wilting and unrelated root rot. Most Hypericum species are difficult to germinate because of heavy seed dormancy. Hypericum androsaemum exhibits both physiological dormancy and chemical dormancy, meaning that seed germination can be kickstarted by both physical and chemical factors. In particular, room-temperature water or the plant hormone gibberellic acid are most effective at bringing its seeds out of a dormant state. New specimens are propagated by sowing non-dormant seeds in a 10°C (50°F) greenhouse in the spring under a very light layer of soil. Once the seedlings are large enough to handle (after 1–3 months), they are moved into individual pots. After the last frost of winter, the new plants are moved to their permanent outdoor locations. As an alternative method to seed propagation, cuttings of semi-hard wood 10–12 long are sometimes taken in the fall. These cuttings are then placed in a frame for the remainder of the fall and winter, and can be replanted the following spring. These triploid specimens have been shown to have massively reduced male fertility and complete female infertility; in addition, they still produce the large and colorful fruits for which H. androsaemum is known, and at rates similar to regular diploid plants. == Uses ==

Like many other Hypericum species, H. androsaemum is a medicinal plant used in folk medicine. For example, it is used as a diuretic, to treat sciatica and gout, and to stem bleeding and accelerate healing from burns and minor wounds. This trait makes the species useful as an antidepressant as well, and testing has demonstrated that it appears to be at least as effective as H. perforatum in that regard. In Portugal, the leaves are used to treat liver, kidney, and bladder ailments, while in England they are mixed with lard to make an ointment to put on cuts or other wounds. The antioxidant properties of the berries of H. androsaemum have been confirmed in laboratory testing, lending credence to their use in teas as antihepatotoxics or diuretics. ==References==