under the Byzantine empress
Theodora over iconoclasm in 843. (National Icon Collection 18,
British Museum). In contrast to moderate or respectful
adoration, various forms of
latria of icons (
iconolatry) were also starting to appear, mainly in popular worship. Since
veritable (full) adoration was reserved for God alone, such an attitude towards icons as objects was seen as a form of
idolatry. In reaction to that, the idolatrous misuse of icons was criticized and by the beginning of the 8th century some radical forms of criticism (
iconoclasm) were also starting to emerge, arguing not only against adoration of icons, but also against any form of adoration and use of icons in religious life. The
iconoclastic controversy emerged in the
Byzantine Empire and lasted through the 8th and the 9th centuries. The most famous
iconodules (proponents of the veneration of icons) during that time were saints
John of Damascus and
Theodore the Studite. The controversy was instigated by the Byzantine Emperor
Leo III in 726, when he ordered the removal of the image of Christ above the
Chalke Gate of the imperial palace in Constantinople. A wider prohibition of icons followed in 730. St.
John of Damascus argued successfully that to prohibit the use of icons was tantamount to denying the
incarnation, the presence of the Word of God in the material world. Icons reminded the church of the physicality of God as manifested in
Jesus Christ. Kissing and respected worship (; ), incense and candles for icons was established by the
Second Council of Nicaea (Seventh
Ecumenical Council) in 787. The Council decided that icons should not be destroyed, as was advocated and practiced by the
iconoclasts, nor veritable (full) worshiped or adored (; ), as was practiced by
iconolatrists, but they needed to be kissed and they needed respectful worship as symbolic representations of God, angels or saints. Such a position was approved by
Pope Adrian I, but due to mis-translations of conciliar acts from Greek into Latin, a controversy arose in the
Frankish kingdom, resulting in the creation of
Libri Carolini. The last outburst of iconoclasm in the Byzantine Empire was overcome at the
Council of Constantinople (843), which reaffirmed the adoration of icons in an event celebrated as the
Feast of Orthodoxy. The
Council of Trent (XIX Ecumenical Council of the Catholic Church) in 1563 confirmed iconodulism. But this council, unlike the Council of Nicaea, used a different expression in relation to icons: "honour and veneration" (). Its decree reads: "we kiss, and before which we uncover the head, and prostrate ourselves, we adore Christ; and we venerate the saints, whose similitude they bear" (). ==See also==