Celtiberian language

According to the P/Q Celtic hypothesis, and like its Iberian relative Gallaecian, Celtiberian is classified as a Q Celtic language, putting it in the same category as Goidelic and not P-Celtic like Gaulish or Brittonic. According to the Insular/Continental Celtic hypothesis, Celtiberian and Gaulish are sometimes grouped together as Continental Celtic languages, but this grouping is paraphyletic: no evidence suggests that the two shared any common innovation separately from Insular Celtic. According to Ranko Matasovic in the introduction to his 2009 Etymological Dictionary of Proto-Celtic stated: "Celtiberian...is almost certainly an independent branch on the Celtic genealogical tree, one that became separated from the others very early." Celtiberian has a fully inflected relative pronoun ios (as does, for instance, Ancient Greek), an ancient feature that was not preserved by the other Celtic languages, and the particles '''''' 'and' < (cf. Latin , Attic Greek ), '''''' 'nor' < (cf. Latin ), '''''' 'also, as well' < (cf. Lat. , Gaulish , OIr. 'again'), and ve "or" (cf. Latin enclitic , Attic Greek ē < Proto-Greek *ē-we). As in Welsh, there is an s-subjunctive; e.g., "he shall take" (Old Irish ), , . Compare Umbrian ferest "he/she/it shall make" or Ancient Greek (aorist subj.) / (future ind.) "(that) he/she/it shall show". == History ==

During the first half of 1st millenia BC, Q-Celtic speaking people invaded Iberian Peninsula, populated by Iberians, potentially related to them Basques, Tartessians and pre-Celtic Indo-European speaking peoples. As early as 3d century BC, Celtiberians adapted and developed Celtiberian script; it was based on the Northeastern Iberian variant, influenced by Greek and Phoenician alphabets, that was used for writing in Iberian and Basque languages. The last texts in Celtiberian (like Peñalba de Villastar) were written in the late 1st century AD, influenced by Latin. Soon after, the written records disappear and the language is believed to have gone extinct before or around 200 AD. ==Phonology==

Celtiberian shows the characteristic sound changes of Celtic languages, such as: PIE consonants • PIE *bʰ, *dʰ, *gʰ > b, d, g: Loss of Proto-Indo-European (PIE) voiced aspiration. • Celtib. and Gaulish [Gaul.] placename element '''''' 'hill, town, akro-polis' to enclose' enclose' hо̄rdh-s, gen. *ghrdh-os'' ‘enclosure, garden, pen') and its many IE cognates. • '''''' 'daughter' ''; cf. Common Celtic (ComCelt.) . • '''''' 'mine' ku: '''' horse (in the name Ekualakos'') b: bindis 'legal agent' gu: ' *φ > ∅': loss of PIE , e.g. (Celtib., OIr., and OBret) vs. Lat. and Sanskrit [Skt. ]. '''''' acc. pl. fem. 'six feet, unit of measure' (2-ny-a''. However, it is possible that, as in other Celtic languages, *p before -l- was voiced to b, if the spelling of the place name 'konbouto (Roman Conplutum) represents /konblouto/. Final *-m is preserved in Celtiberian (and Lepontic), a further indication of these dialects' conservatism. It is generally fronted to -n in Gaulish (exceptional cases, for instance on the Larzac tablet, are probably due to influence from Latin): boustom "stable." Consonant clusters • PIE *mn > un: as in Lepontic, Brythonic, and Gaulish, but not Old Irish and seemingly not Galatian. '''''' 'neighbour' un: '''' mn'': 'damage' bl as in other Celtic languages, suggested by the placename konbouto' (Roman Conplutum'') if that represents /konblouto/. • '''' *x: Dexivates''. • PIE *gt > *kt > *tt / t: '''''' 'constructions, buildings' *xt: luxtu *st: as opposed to Gaulish, Irish and Welsh, where the change was *st > ss. This preservation of the PIE cluster *st is another indication of the phonological conservatism of Celtiberian. '''''' 'excellent' e: • '''''' 'in Togotis' a: • '''''' 'fenced, enclosed' o: • '''''' (dat.sing.) 'for the last' ē > ī?. This Celtic reflex isn't well attested in Celtiberian. e.g. IE meaning "king, ruler" vs. Celtiberian -reiKis, Gaulish -rix, British rix, Old Irish , Old Welsh, Old Breton ri meaning "king". In any case, the maintenance of PIE ē = ē is well attested in '''''' 'he did' ā: • '''''' 'to burn' a/u: Celt. in final syllables, in non-final syllables; e.g.: • '''''' 'he must give' w-: uta 'conj. and, prep. besides' an / *m̥ > am: • '''''' 'silver' '''''' 'nine' 'civil parish, shire' (modern Spanish Tres Cantos). • PIE *CHC > CaC (C = any consonant, H = any laryngeal), as in Common Celtic and Italic (SCHRIJVER 1991: 415, McCONE 1996: 51 and SCHUMACHER 2004: 135): • ' CaC (C = any consonant, H = any laryngeal): ' 'prince' arR and *l̥R > alR (R = resonant): '''''' 'part, share' riP and *l̥P > liP (P = plosive): • ' PiRiKanTi CarV and *Cl̥HV > CalV': • sailo 'dung, slurry' *salyo aRC (H = any laringeal, R̥ any syllabic resonant, C = any consonant, as in Common Celtic (JOSEPH 1982: 51 and ZAIR 2012: 37): '''''' 'silver' z/th (/θ/) between vowels and of -*d, -*dʰ > z/th (/θ/) at the ends of words: • adiza 'duty' < *adittia < *h₂ed-d(e)ik-t-ya. • '''''' 'highest' < *ups-ed-yō. • '''''' 'territory' < *teut-yō. • rouzu 'red' < *reudʰy-ō. • olzo 'last' < *h₂ol-tyo. • ozas 'feet' < *pod-y-ans. • datuz < *dh₃-tōd; '''''' 'free' (in: LOUZOKUM, MLH IV, K.1.1.) < *h₁leudʰy-ō; cf. Oscan loufir 'free man', Russian ljúdi 'men, people'. That this is one of only a very few phonological developments that distinguishes Celtiberian phonologically from Proto-Celtic is one reason Matasovic has deemed Celtiberian a very early independent branch of Proto-Celtic. It is noteworthy that this weakening of most non-initial Proto-Celtic voiced dental stops (ds) seems to indicate that Celtiberian had taken the first step in what became more-widespread lenition of non-initial (and in some cases even initial) voiced consonants in later Celtic dialects. ==Morphology==

Noun and adjective cases • '''''' 'part, share' encloses' from *h₂m̥bhi-dʰingʰ-s-e-ti. • '''', secondary *-t > /θ/ written in ' (SP.02.08, B-4) and perhaps '''. • primary plural active *-nti in ' (Z.09.24, A-4) and ' 'they sow' (or perhaps 'they give', with assimilation of the initial to the medial ). • secondary *-nt perhaps in '''''' (Z.09.24, A-5). • middle voice *-nto in ' (Z.09.03, 01) and perhaps ' (SP.02.08 A-2). A third-person imperative *-tо̄d > -tuz perhaps is seen in '''''' 'he must give' (bronze plaque of Torrijo del Campo), ', (Botorrita I A.5) and ' 'he must build' hh1-e-ti'' 'he may bestow.' It is notable that no infinitive forms were preserved or developed in the insular Celtic languages. ==Syntax==

Celtiberian syntax is considered to have the basic order subject–object–verb. Another archaic IE feature is the use of the relative pronoun jos and the repetition of enclitised conjunctions such as kwe. ==Sample texts==

=== First Botorrita plaque, side A === One of four bronze plaques found in Botorrita, this text was written in eastern Celtiberian script. The other side consists of a list of names. (K.01.01.A) Image:Botorrita 1.jpg|First Botorrita plaque (Zaragoza). Image:Zaragoza - Museo - Grafito 01.jpg|Another Botorrita plaque (Zaragoza). :'''''' :all this (is) valid by order of the competent authority ::: all this ( the land cultivated (acc. pl. fem. erekaiās English furrow). ::: to Lugus. ::: properly, totally, (may be a verbal complement > *pare-yanom, cfr. welsh ). ::: we dedicate (present 3 p.pl. komeimu English fallow''). ::: (and) the roofs > houses (nom. pl. or gen. sg. togias Old Irish "cover, protection"). ::: are they (dedicated) (3 p.pl. 1epi-s-o-bʰos''). ::: in the assignment, in the duty (loc. fem. sing. Image:Zaragoza - Museo - Bronce epigráfico.jpg|Cortono plaque. Unknown origin. Image:Bronce luzaga.jpg|Luzaga's bronze (Guadalajara). Image:Tésera hospitalidad (Uxama).jpg|Uxama tessera (Osma, Soria). Image:Tessera Celtiberian (unknown).jpg|Fröhner tessera. Unknown origin. ==See also==