Motul de San José

Motul de San José is located from the north shore of Lake Petén Itzá, in the centre of the department of El Petén. The nearest town is Flores, to the south, on the other side of the lake. The nearest villages are San José, away, and San Andrés, away, both are to the south of the site, on the northern shore of the lake. The archaeological site is connected to Nuevo San José, a northern expansion of San José, by a dirt road. It lies among land that has been cleared of forest within the last century and is now used to plant maize and graze cattle. Motul de San José lies on a limestone plateau at the northern edge of the fault depression that underlies the central lakes of the Petén Basin. The local topography consists of ridges, generally running east–west or northeast–southwest alternating with lower-lying areas with clay soils. These low-lying areas tend to feed into drainage systems flowing into either Lake Petén Itzá itself or into the Akte River. The Kantetul River is a seasonal watercourse with its origin to the northeast of the site and flowing westwards into the Akte River, passing from the site core. The Akte River in turn flows west into the San Pedro River, which flows northwest into Mexico where it joins the Usumacinta River and ultimately empties into the Gulf of Mexico. A mixture of ancient and modern agricultural terraces line the riverbank, north of the site core. Access to water was crucial for Maya cities, since much of the Maya lowlands have been described as a seasonal desert due to the combination of a prolonged dry season lasting between four and six months together with the limestone geography that makes surface water scarce. In addition the Maya greatly preferred water to land transport and used canoes to trade extensively by river and sea, and access to river routes connected cities to extensive trade routes. Motul de San José lies within a dense cluster of smaller satellite sites. It is to the southwest of the major Classic Period ruins of Tikal. The site is about north of Guatemala City. The ruins are located on a hill about above mean sea level. The park covers an area of approximately . ==Emblem glyph==

Maya cities and kingdoms in the Classic Period were identified in hieroglyphic texts by a distinctive emblem glyph; they are essentially royal titles composed of three distinct parts – the glyphs representing ''k'uhul and ajau'' (meaning "divine" and "lord") followed by the name of the polity this person ruled over. The decipherment of emblem glyphs was crucial to the interpreting the political makeup of Classic Period Maya civilization. The emblem glyph of Motul de San José contains the main sign ik, "breath" or "wind". It is found on monuments and ceramics from the 8th and 9th centuries. A vessel bearing this emblem and depicting king Lamaw Ek' was found as far away as Altar de Sacrificios. Analysis has revealed that it was manufactured in Motul de San José, indicating some form of interaction between these distant sites. ==Economy==

The majority of basic natural resources were readily available in the immediate vicinity of the city, with local soils being suitable for the production of maize and mixed crops to support the local populace. The subsidiary site of La Trinidad de Nosotros, located on the shore of Lake Petén Itzá some southeast of the site core, appears to have been an important port for the import and export of goods to and from Motul de San José. Food resources not available in the immediate vicinity of the city were probably provided by the satellite sites dispersed at some distance from the site core, and La Trinidad is likely to have played an important part in supplying exotic goods to the city as well as freshwater foodstuffs such as crocodiles, fish and turtles. Ceramic figurines were produced in the Acropolis palace complex in Group C and also in a medium-sized palace complex in Group B, an elite plaza in Group E and also in two elite plazas in the northern part of the site. The small satellite site of Chak Maman Tok' several kilometers to the southwest of Motul de San José, appears to have been an important centre for the production of chert tools, with only a few other centres within the Maya lowlands manufacturing chert on such a scale. Although very small, Chak Maman Tok' probably played a major part within the economy of the Motul de San José polity. Differences in architectural style between elite residential complexes and in the activities carried out at them suggest that the aristocracy of Motul de San José was divided into several distinct classes, including the royal family resident in Group C, royal courtiers and low to middle rank nobles. The Kantetul River, although now seasonal, is reported to have been a navigable water channel until relatively recently. During the height of Motul de San José's power, it may have provided an important link to the San Pedro River, a significant trade route in ancient times. ==Ik style ceramics==

Motul de San José is possibly the source of the so-called "Ik-style" painted polychrome ceramics, a theory that has recently received additional support from archaeological excavations at the site. These ceramic vessels, including finely painted plates and cylindrical vessels, were first associated with the then-unidentified site of Ik in the 1970s by the Emblem Glyph included in the hieroglyphic texts on them. The confirmation of Motul de San José as Ik came from investigations carried out from 1998 to 2004. The Ik-style ceramic corpus includes a set of features such as hieroglyphs painted in a pink or pale red colour and scenes with dancers wearing masks. One of the most distinctive features is the realistic representation of subjects as they appeared in life, something that is very rare in Mesoamerican art. The corpus is represented by more than 30 intact vessels, the majority of unknown provenance, which have been compared to ceramic fragments recovered from Motul de San José and its satellite sites. The subject matter of the vessels includes courtly life from the Petén region in the 8th century AD, such as diplomatic representations, feasting, bloodletting, scenes of warriors and the sacrifice of prisoners of war. Of particular note is that chemical analysis of ceramic fragments has revealed that the very same workshops not only produced the highest-quality Ik-style polychrome ceramics but also general low-quality ceramics for household use. High quality Ik-style ceramics made at Motul de San José have been excavated from across the Maya region, including Tikal and Uaxactún to the northeast of the city, Copán far to the south, and Altar de Sacrificios, Tamarindito and Seibal, in western Petén. A particularly rare feature found on Motul de San José ceramics is the so-called X-ray style, showing a figure wearing a mask but also portraying his face underneath it. All the other representations using this rare style are depicted on Late Classic sculptures at sites with which it is known that Motul de San José had contact at this time, including Dos Pilas, Machaquila, Tikal and Yaxchilan. ==Occupation and diet==

Motul de San José was occupied from the Middle Preclassic right through to the Early Postclassic. However, the height of the city's occupation was the Late Classic. Settlement density averages 250 structures per square kilometer (650 structures per square mile) in the site's monumental core, 125 structures per square kilometer (325 structures per square mile) in the city's suburban area and 79 structures per square kilometer (205 structures per square mile) in the site's periphery. Motul de San José's likely resource catchment zone probably extended between around the site core and included a number of satellite sites including Kantetul, La Trinidad de Nosotros, Akte, Buena Vista, Chachaklum and Chakokot. This region also includes two major water sources in the form of Lake Péten Itzá to the south and the Kantetul river to the north. The area around the city included a variety of soils suitable for agriculture, with 20% of this being very fertile soil highly suited to agriculture, just over 50% of the area was very fertile but required high maintenance (consisting of either fertilization or crop rotation) and 14% being low fertility soil consisting of lowland clay and suitable only for maize or being left unfarmed. Soil analysis has revealed that maize was not only grown in peripheral areas but also close to residential areas throughout Motul de San José. Archaeological investigations have revealed that the diet of the inhabitants of Motul de San José included dogs (Canis familiaris), turtles including pond sliders (Trachemys scripta) and Mesoamerican river turtles (Dermatemys mawii), freshwater snails (mostly Pomacea flagellata but also jute snails (Pachychilus spp.)), white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus), red brocket (Mazama americana, a species of small deer), white-lipped peccary (Tayassu pecari), rabbits (Sylvilagus spp.), lowland pacas (Cuniculus paca), Central American agouti (Dasyprocta punctata) and nine-banded armadillos (Dasypus novemcinctus). Only the dog had been domesticated by the Late Classic Maya so the majority of protein in the diet of the inhabitants came from hunting and fishing within the catchment area around the city. The most common food animals were the white-tailed deer, river clam and river turtle. Some animal remains were recovered that were clearly associated with elite status occupation, such as those of the jaguar, the ocelot or other small feline and the crocodile (crocodilus spp.). These latter three appear more related to ritual and economic activity than nutritional needs. Freshwater snails were more an ingredient in the diet of lower status families while deer remains were associated with the elite residents of the city. Among Motul de San José and its most important satellite La Trinidad de Nosotros, the majority of remains from Trinidad were from aquatic species, while at Motul de San José the majority were from terrestrial species. 10% of animal remains from Motul had been modified to form artefacts, compared with only 4% of animal remains at Trinidad. Artefact remains found at La Trinidad de Nosotros were more likely to be waste products from artefact manufacture while at Motul de San José they were more likely to be artefacts at the end of their usable life. Aquatic animal products arriving at Motul de San José were far more likely to be consumed by the elite than by commoners, whether used as food or to craft artefacts. ==History==

Preclassic Period Middle Preclassic Motul de San José was first settled between 600 and 300 BC, in the latter portion of the Middle Preclassic period, when it was probably a fairly small site. At this time some of its satellite sites were also settled, including La Trinidad de Nosotros and Buena Vista, both of which would have been small villages at this time, and they may have been settled even earlier in the Middle Preclassic, between 800 and 600 BC. Late Preclassic Although investigation of Preclassic remains is difficult at Motul de San José due to the overlying Late Classic construction, it is evident that the site experienced major growth during the Late Preclassic (300 BC–AD 300) and became a sizeable centre. At roughly the same time, most of the major structures were built at Akte, and Chakokot experienced its earliest occupation during the Late Preclassic. In contrast, Buena Vista appears to have been lightly occupied. La Trinidad de Nosotros also underwent major expansion in the Late Preclassic and became larger and more important than Motul de San José, with its architectural layout being finalised in this period – later Classic period construction was superimposed upon pre-existing Late Preclassic structures. Classic Period Although Motul de San José had begun to refer to Tikal as its overlord in the late 4th century, by the 7th century various hieroglyphic texts mention that it was under the dominion of Calakmul, Tikal's greatest enemy, before again coming under the power of Tikal in the early 8th century. Early Classic Early Classic ceramic finds are scarce at Motul de San José and those that have been found were a minor component in mixed fill deposits. This suggests that Motul de San José was largely abandoned in the Early Classic. The best examples of Early Classic pottery come from outside of Motul de San José itself, with several complete ceramic vessels being recovered during the construction of a modern language school in Trinidad de Nosotros and some fragments of Early Classic pottery being retrieved from a looted chultun at Wakutal. It is possible that the widespread distribution of Ik-style ceramics in elite tombs at sites in the Petexbatún region may be linked to the military defeat of Motul de San José by Dos Pilas, with these high quality ceramics forming a part of the tribute payment made to the Petexbatún kingdom. After its defeat at the hands of the Petexbatún kingdom, Motul de San José no longer erected sculpted stelae but the history of the site continued to be recorded to a certain extent in texts on Ik-style ceramics. Politics . Here she is depicted performing a bloodletting rite in AD 755. Yaxchilán Lintel 15, now in the British Museum. In the Late Classic period Motul de San José was located between two mutually hostile powers, the great city of Tikal to the north and the breakaway kingdom of Petexbatún to the southwest, which had become a vassal of Tikal's implacable enemy Calakmul. In Mesoamerica, such border states as Motul de San José became centres of political activity as they tried to manipulate the shifting political fortunes of their neighbours to their own advantage. This seems to be the case at Motul de San José with its rich ceramic tradition being a testament to the politically motivated banqueting that took place in the city. In the 8th century, although Motul de San José was the capital of the Ik polity, the aristocracy of its satellite sites wielded great power and were able to challenge their own position within the political hierarchy of the state while remaining subordinate to the ruling lord of the capital city. In spite of these shifting alliances, Motul de San José acted with a degree of independence and was a powerful kingdom in the 8th century AD, with its ruler using the kaloomte title given to high kings. The city's rulers became very successful on the political scene in the wider Maya region, with the use of politically motivated feasting, war, economics and political marriages. There is a glyphic record that sometime before 731 a lord of Motul was captured by a lord (Ruler B) of Machaquilá. In 740, Machaquila attacked Motul de San José. In the middle of the 8th century AD, Motul de San José was closely allied with the important city of Yaxchilan on the Usumacinta River, as demonstrated by the fact that the king of Yaxchilan Yaxun B'alam IV ("Bird Jaguar IV") who ruled from 752 to 768, took two wives from Motul de San José. They are named in inscriptions at Yaxchilan as Lady Wak Tuun and Lady Wak Jalam Chan Ajaw. Lady Wak Jalam Chan Ajaw is shown preparing her husband for a battle that took place in 755 on Yaxchilan Lintel 41, now in the British Museum in London. In fact, the alliance with Yaxchilan may date further back to the early 8th century since Yaxchilan Lintel 25 (dedicated in AD 723) used the so-called X-ray style of imagery that is closely associated with the Motul de San José polity. However, relations with Yaxchilan were not always peaceful and Hieroglyphic Stairway 5 at Yaxchilan records that Itzamnaaj B'alam III of Yaxchilan defeated the lord of Motul some time in the latter part of the 8th century. Known rulers All dates A.D. An Ik-style vessel possesses a hieroglyphic text declaring that it was the property of Chuy-ti Chan, the son of Sak Muwaan, divine lord of Motul de San Jose who ruled between AD 700 and 726. Chuy-ti Chan is described as an artist and ballplayer and appears to have been appointed as an ambassador to the site known as Maan. Two rulers feature prominently on Ik-style ceramics, they are named as Yajawte' K'inich and Lamaw Ek'. Lamaw Ek' appears to have ruled directly after Yajawte' K'inich but was not his son, on one vessel his father is given the title ''k'uhul Ik'nal, a "divine noble of Motul de San José" but not the king (whose title is k'uhul ajaw'' or "divine lord"). Each of these two rulers had his own dedicated master painter. The artist of Yajawte' K'inich is named on the ceramics as T'uubal Ajaw, Lord of T'uubal. This latter site, T'uubal, is thought to be located in Petén somewhere between Tikal and Naranjo. Yajawte' K'inich is depicted on one Ik-style vessel wearing a mask and dancing, he is also depicted on Stelae 2 and 6 in the site core. Yajawte' K'inich is recorded on one vessel as possibly having died in AD 755. The name of the painter who produced the ceramic vessels for Lamaw Ek' is only partially deciphered, as well as painting the vessel that possibly records the death of Yajawte' K'inich, he also painted a vessel recording the death of Lamaw Ek' as having taken place in AD 779. An inscription dating to AD 830 mentions the last known ruler of Machaquilá, which may be evidence of a long-standing relationship between the two sites. If this is the case, then Machaquilá appears to have been the dominant city out of the two. Itza migration It has been suggested that Itza Maya from Motul de San José began the northward migration of Maya peoples to the Yucatán Peninsula at the end of the Classic Period. Classic period stelae at the site refer to the King of the Itzá, demonstrating that the Itza were already in the Petén region at this time. The nearby village of San José, on the shore of Lake Petén Itzá, is one of the last Itzá communities in Petén. Teoberto Maler visited Motul de San José in May 1895, and described one of the stelae in his report Explorations in the Department of Peten, Guatemala, published by the Peabody Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology of Harvard University in 1910. Ian Graham and Arlen Chase have separately mapped portions of the site core. Before the establishment of the Motul Ecological Park, the site was used for agriculture, specifically the cultivation of maize. The site has been damaged several times by wildfires caused by uncontrolled stubble burning in 1986, 1987 and again in 1998. This last fire badly damaged the stelae in the site core. In 1998, the mayor of San José oversaw the improvement of the road to Motul de San José, which involved surfacing the road with gravel and opened the archaeological site to easier access, resulting in increased tourism at the site. The Proyecto Arqueológico Motul de San José (Motul de San José Archaeological Project) has been investigating Motul de San José and its satellites from 1998 to 2008, under the direction of Antonia Foias of Williams College and Kitty Emery of the Florida Museum of Natural History. The core of the satellite site of Akte was mapped in 2002 and Trinidad de Nosotros was investigated by the project in 2003. ==Site description==

Group B includes a high pyramid located about south of a palace complex laid out around two small plazas. The palace complex has been looted, with one of the smaller structures around the east plaza having been completely destroyed. Stela 2 is situated on a low platform to the west of the main pyramid. The Main Plaza in Group C measures approximately and is bordered by the Acropolis on the north and west sides, twin pyramids on the east side and the South Pyramid on the south side. It is the largest plaza at Motul de San José, encompassing an area greater than . Both of these pyramids probably originally supported roof combs and were accessed by twin stairways rising from the plaza to the west. One of the ceramic vessels excavated from the acropolis was in a style associated with Tikal. Investigations behind the west structure of the northwest plaza in the Acropolis recovered fill that included ceramic fragments dating as far back as the Late Preclassic and Early Classic. The South Pyramid is the highest structure at the site, measuring tall. As its name suggests, it forms the south side of the Main Plaza. Group D Group D is an elaborate residential complex located to the north of the twin pyramids in Group C and northeast of the Acropolis, like the other groups it consists of various structures laid out around a plaza. A pyramid is situated on the east side of the Group D plaza. A looters' trench that was cut into the pyramid revealed earlier levels of construction consisting of well made stone blocks, The occupation of Group D dates as far back as the Middle Preclassic period. Group D was occupied as late as the Terminal Classic, when a termination ritual was apparently performed, after which the northern building of the group was abandoned. The ritual included scattering a large amount of rubbish in front of the south entrance to the building and then possibly burning the building itself. The rubbish is presumed to have come from the area of Group D itself and included some items associated with weaving and the manufacture of paper. Stela 1, dating to the 8th century AD, contains the first known mention anywhere of the phrase Itza Chul Ahau ("Divine Lord of the Itza"). It is situated on the west side of the Main Plaza in Group C and has the most well preserved hieroglyphic text at the site. The text describes the accession to the throne of a local lord under the supervision of Jasaw Chan Kʼawiil I of Tikal. Stela 1 also provides the best evidence yet found identifying Motul de San José as the Late Classic Ik polity. On its west face it depicts a figure sculpted using the so-called X-ray style found on Ik-style ceramics, which depicts the face in profile wearing a mask that has been cut away to show the face underneath. The stela shows king Yajawte' K'inich performing a dance, with one foot raised. The north and south faces of the stela bore sculpted designs, the remaining butt of the stela has the left foot of a human figure worked in profile on the south side. The sculpture on the north side has been pieced together in part and appears to have shown the figure of a ruler of the city dressed in rich clothing and regalia. The figure was positioned performing a dance, with one foot half lifted off the ground. In his right hand the ruler held a God K sceptre. The prelimanry reconstruction of the sculpture indicates that the figure of the king measured between high. Stela 6 is very similar to Stela 1 from Dos Pilas with both depicting the ruler in an identical position. The stela appears to have been a relatively late addition to the plaza and dates to the Late Postclassic period. ==Satellite sites==

There are a number of smaller satellite sites located around Motul de San José: Akte Akte is situated northwest of Motul de San José and is known for its sculptured monuments. The centre of Akte covers an area of and includes 32 structures on a high artificially landscaped hill, with a number of other structures scattered through the surrounding area. The hill supporting the site core overlooks the rivers Akte and Kantetul. The overall area of Akte is probably larger than that of Trinidad de Nosotros, covering a area, but this includes less structures than at Trinidad, with small residential groups widely scattered on hilltops around the site core. Seven sculpted monuments have been found at Akte, an unusual number for such a small site. If these monuments were originally erected at Akte, then this may mean that the site was actually outside of the Motul de San José polity. Archaeological investigations of the stelae carried out in 2003 were unable to determine if the monuments had been moved to Akte or not. It is badly eroded and can be dated by a damaged Long Count date inscribed on the back, which dates it to the end of the 7th century or the beginning of the 8th. The front of the stela bears the representation of a standing "divine lord" with attributes typical of the Late Classic. 13 structures have been mapped, situated around a small plaza, with a small temple on the east side. The site is located on a hilltop and was once much larger but has been partially covered by the modern development of Nuevo San José. The main pyramids of Motul de San José are visible from Buena Vista, as is a large part of the lake. Buena Vista has fairly good soil and the surviving portions of the site are currently used for milpa cultivation. The earliest ceramic evidence excavated at Buena Vista dates to the very end of the Early Preclassic period, indicating that the site was initially settled at the transition between the Early and Middle Preclassic periods. The long occupational history of Buena Vista may be linked to its proximity to chert-rich hills. Excavations have revealed evidence of chert workshops dedicated to the production of tools, together with dumps of waste flakes. Group B is located a little to the southeast, Structure 1 is the East Pyramid, it is located on the hillside a short distance from the rest of the mounds. It is a large site covering over , an area that includes over 141 structures. Chachaklum includes a small ceremonial centre where a possible E-Group has been identified. The site is located in an area of savanna with poor soils considered unsuitable for the growing of maize, somewhat at odds with the settlement density of the site. The contrast between the settlement density and poor soils has highlighted the need for further research into Maya agriculture in a savanna environment. Chachaklum's principal phase of occupation appears to date to the Terminal Classic period, during the 10th and 11th centuries AD. However, the site possesses massive basal platforms and these, together with the presence of the E-Group, suggests a longer occupational period than was immediately evident from the first excavations of the site. Further investigations have revealed a long occupational history beginning in the Late Preclassic period and continuing right through to the Late Classic. It occupies an area of and consists of 59 structures widely dispersed around a small plaza upon the flat summit of a high hill. Principal occupation dates from the Late Preclassic and Late Classic periods. The Plaza at Chakokot is small and covers an area of about . On the north and east sides it is bordered by residential groups, a square platform is to the south and on the west by two low parallel structures measuring just high. Most of the residential areas at Chakokot possess one or more bottle-shaped underground storage chambers, known as chultunob, with 14 having been found as of 2001. Because of the thick vegetation at the site, investigators consider that there are probably more to be found. These chultunob were closed with disc-shaped stone lids, many of which were found either still in place or close to the aperture of the chultun to which it belonged. The stone lids were without perforations so it is supposed that the chambers were used to store dry goods rather than water. The site has more than 115 structures located in an area of , and the site may actually cover and contain about 150 structures. The site had a long occupational history stretching right through from the Middle Preclassic to the Early Postclassic, with two phases of greater activity in the Early Classic around AD 350 and in the Late Classic from AD 650–830. The Terminal Classic occupation was largely limited to the lake shore but was fairly dense. La Trinidad de Nosotros has been tentatively identified as Xililchi, a settlement visited by conquistador Martín de Ursúa after Spanish Conquest of the Itza capital Noj Petén in 1697, but no Late Postclassic remains have yet been securely identified. Structure A-1 is the main temple, it is a high radial pyramid. Structure E-1 may originally have been a circular building. The last phase of construction dates to the Late Classic. Group O is a small residential group to the west of Plaza V. ==See also==